Long distance Trade and the Silk Roads Network
- Two developments reduced risks associated with travel and long distance trade - Rulers invested a lot in construction of roads and bridges - Classical societies built large imperial states that sometimes expanded to the point that they bordered on one another
Trade Networks of the Hellenistic Era
Long distance trade increased a lot during the Hellenistic era, partly because of the many colonies established by Alexander of Macedon and the Seleucid rulers in Persia and Bactria
Monsoon System
- Ptolemaic Egypt learned about the monsoon winds that governed sailing and shipping in the Indian Ocean - Knowledge of these winds enabled mariners to sail safely to all parts of the Indian Ocean basin - Establishment and maintenance of trade routes called for a lot of investment in military forces, construction, and bureaucracies to administer that commerce - Lot of economic development, worth it
Trade in the Hellenistic World
- Trade developed throughout the Hellenistic world, from Bactria and India in the east to the Mediterranean basin in the west - Spices, pepper, cosmetics, gems, and pearls = India - Grain = Persia and Egypt - Wine, olive oil, jewelry, and works of art made their way to Persia and Bactria = Mediterranean - Throughout region from India to the Mediterranean, merchants conducted in slavery, kidnapping victims or prisoners of war During late century CBCE, the port of Rhapta emerged as the principal commercial center on the wast African coast
The Silk Roads
- Establishment of classical empires expanded long distance trade - Han empire maintained order in China and other places which offered access to Bactria and western markets - Parthian empire displaced the Seleucids in Persia and extended its authority to Mesopotamia - Roman empire brought order to the Mediterranean basin - With decline of Mauryan dynasty, India lacked a strong imperial state, but the Kushan empire and other regional states provided stability and security
Overland Trade Routes
- As classical empires expanded, merchants created an extensive network of trade routes that linked Eurasia and north Africa - Called silk roads since silk from China was one main commodities - Took caravan trade from China to the Roman empire - From Han capital Chang'an, the main silk road went west until it arrived at the Taklamakan desert, also known as the Tarim Basin - One of the most dangerous region on Earth
Sea Lanes and Maritime Trade
- Included network of sea lanes - From Guangzhou in S China, sea lanes through the South China Sea linked east Asian seaboard to mainland and the islands of southeast Asia - Routes linking southeast Asia with Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka) and India were especially busy during classical times - From India, sea lanes passed through the Arabian Sea to Persia and Arabia - Through Persian Gulf and Red Sea, offered access to land routes and Mediterranean basin, which already had a well developed network of trade routes
Trade Goods
- Silk --> China - Fine spices --> southeast Asia - Ginger --> China - Cinnamon --> India - Sesame oil --> India, Arabia, and southwest Asia - Spices were really important in the olden days - India --> cotton textiles and valuable exotic items such as pearls, coral, and ivory - Central Asia --> large, strong horses and high quality jade, much prized in China - Roman empire --> glassware, jewellery, works of art, decorative items, perfumes, bronze goods, wool and linen textiles, pottery, iron tools, olive oil, wine, and gold and silver bullion - Mediterranean merchants and manufacturers often imported raw materials an then exported the finished products
The Organisation of Long Distance Trade
- Merchants handled long distance trade in stages - After Roman emperors absorbed Egypt in the first century CE, their subjects carried on a especially brisk trade between India and the Mediterranean - Many ships that went to India was from the port Berenice, which Roman authorities considered so important that they maintained ten forts to guard it
Cultural and Biological Exchanges Along the Silk Road
- Silk roads carried beliefs, values, and religious convictions to distant lands (Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity) - Disease pathogens - Towards the end of classical era, epidemic disease caused dramatic declined especially in China and the Mediterranean basin and in other pasts of Eurasia as well
The Spread of Buddhism and Hinduism
- By third century BCE, Buddhism had become well established in northern India, and with emperor Ashoka it spread to Bactria and Ceylon - Buddhism particularly popular for merchants so it gradually made its way to Iran, Central Asia, China, and southeast Asia
Buddhism in Central Asia
- Buddhism first established a presence in the oasis towns along the silk roads (Merv, Bukhara, Samarkand, Kashgar, Khotan, Kuqa, Turpan, and Dunhuang) where merchants found rest and markets - Oases depended on trade to survive - Became cosmopolitan centres - As early as second century BCE, many residents of the oases adopted Buddhism - From the oases communities it spread to the steppe lands of central Asia and to China - By fourth century CE, they had sponsored spread of Buddhism throughout much of central Asia
Buddhism in China
- By first century BCE, Buddhism established a foothold in China - Only merchants cared about Buddhism at first - Beginning about the fifth century CE, Chinese began to respond to Buddhism - During post classical era became the most popular religion through al of east Asia, including Japan, Korea, and China
Buddhism and Hinduism in southeast Asia
- As Buddhism spread north from India into central Asia and China, both Buddhism and Hinduism began to attract following in southeast Asia - Sea lanes through Indian Ocean played important role in spreading religion - By first century CE, clear signs of Indian cultural influence had appeared in southeast Asia - In Java, Sumatra, and other islands, rulers of southeast Asian states called them selves rajas in the manner of Indian rulers and adopted Sanskrit - Many rulers converted to Buddhism and other promoted Hindu cults of Shiva and Vishnu
The Spread of Christianity
Early Christians faced persecution from Roman officials, early centuries CE
Christianity in the Mediterranean Basin
- During second and third CE, missionaries such as Gregory the Wonderworker, helped make Christianity a popular religion of salvation in the Roman empire - By late third century CE, devout Christian communities flourished through the Mediterranean basin in Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and north Africa as well as in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Gaul
Christianity in Southwest Asia
- By second century CE, there were pretty big Christian communities in Mesopotamia and Iran, and a few Christian churches also appeared in India - Did not dominate eastern lands as in Roman empire, but had large numbers of converts in southwest Asia - Christian communities in Mesopotamia and Iran influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire as they were extremely strict on themselves - Caused Christians in empire to take more extreme measures - By third century CE, some Mediterranean Christians began to abandon society and live as hermits in the deserts of Egypt - Ascetic practices of Christians living in lands east of Roman empire helped inspire formation of Christian communities in southwest Asia and the Mediterranean basin - After fifth century CE, Christian communities in southwest Asia and the Mediterranean basin went separate ways with most of the faithful in southwest Asia becoming Nestorian's
The Spread of Manichaeism Mani and Manichaeism
- Prophet Mani (216-272CE), a devout Zoroastrian from Babylon in Mesopotamia - Drew deep influence from Christianity and Buddhism as well - Viewed the different important people such as Buddha or Jesus as the prophet of that area ie. Buddha is the prophet of India - Saw need for a prophet for all humanity, so blended the different elements of each religion - Was a dualist, viewed the world as a struggle between good and evil, darkness connected with the material world
Manichaeans Ethics
- Promoted ascetic lifestyle and insisted disciples observe high ethical standards - Mani was a fervent missionary - Despite asceticism, Manichaeism appealed to merchants who accepted the religion as hearers (followers who weren't as intense and supported the elects who were the more devout people) - Supported Manichaen church - By end of third century CE, Manichaeans communities had appeared in all the large cities and trading centers of the Roman empire
Decline of Manichaeism
- Zoroastrian leaders urged Sasanid rulers to suppress Mani's movement as a threat to public order - Mani died as a prisoner of the Sasanid emperor - Roman empire also persecuted them - During fifth and sixth centuries, political authorities largely exterminated Manichaeism in the Mediterranean basin, yet it survived in central Asia
The Spread of Epidemic Disease
Even for classical times, although its hard to find evidence, the general outlines of population history are pretty clear
Epidemic Diseases
- During second and third centuries CE, Han and Roman empires suffered outbreaks of epidemic disease - Most destructive were the smallpox and measles, also perhaps bubonic plague - Chinese and Roman populations decline sharply - Most devastating was an outbreak of smallpox that spread throughout the Mediterranean basin during years 165 to 180 CE - Claimed life of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius - By 600 CE, both Mediterranean and Chinese populations had fallen by a quarter to a third from their high points during classical times
Effects of Epidemic Diseases
- Decline brought economic and social change - As trade in the empire declined, their economies contracted, made them become self-sufficient - After 200 CE they increasingly established several smaller regional economies that concentrated on their own needs instead of the larger imperial market - Epidemic disease contributed to serious instability in China after the Han dynasty, and in weakening Mediterranean society, it helped bring the fall of the western Roman empire
China after the Han Dynasty
- By time epidemic struck China, internal political problems were already making the Han dynasty fall - Early in third century CE, central government dissolved
Internal Decay of the Han State
- Collapsed largely because of internal problems rulers couldn't solve - One problem involved the factions within the ranks - Bigger was distribution of land - During last two centuries of Han dynasty, large landowners gained new influence in the government, managed to reduce their share of taxes and shift the burden onto peasants
Peasant Rebellion
- Provoked widespread unrest, especially in peasants - Pressure became very acute when epidemic struck - Yellow Turban Uprising
Collapse of the Han Dynasty
- Han generals usurped political authority by 190CE, Han emperor were merely a puppet - Allied with wealthy landowners and established themselves as warlords - Generals continued to recognise emperor, but in 220 CE they abolished the Han dynasty and divided the empire into three large kingdoms - Many nomadic peoples migrated into China - Between fourth and sixth centuries CE, nomadic peoples established large kingdoms that dominated much of northern China as well as the steppe lands
Cultural Change in Post-Han China
- War and nomadic invasions led to population decline in much of northern China - By mid-fifth century the region around Chang'an and Luoyang experienced almost complete devastation because of armies
Sinicization of Nomadic People
- During this time, Nomadic peoples adapted to Chinese environment, married Chinese people, taking Chinese names - With generations, distinctions between the nomads and the Chinese were less obvious - With disintegration of political order, Confucian tradition lost a lot of its credibility - People turned to Daosim and Buddhism instead - Daosim became more religious than philosophical
Popularity of Buddhism
- Until fourth century CE, Buddhism was largely the faith of foreign merchants in China - After fall of Han empire, Buddhism received strong support from nomadic peoples - Due to missionary efforts, the Indian faith began to attract a following among native Chinese as well - Fourth-sixth centuries CE, Buddhism became well established in China
Fall of the Roman Empire
- Internal and external pressures weakened the empire and brought end to Roman authority in western portion of empire, whereas imperial rule continued until the fifteenth century CE in eastern Mediterranean - In Mediterranean basin as in China, imperial weakness and collapse coincided with cultural change
Internal Decay in the Roman Empire The Barracks Emperors
- During half century from 235 to 284 CE, there were twenty-six recognised emperors, known as barrack emperors as most were generals who seized power briefly then lost it by rivals or by their troops - Apart from divisions and factions, Roman empire faced problems because of its sheer size
Diocletian
- Emperor Diocletian attempted to deal with problem by dividing empire into two administrative districts - Eastern district included Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, and Greece, the western district embraced Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain and north Africa - Made four co-emperors who ruled each district, hoped that this would administer the vast empire more effectively than just one person - Managed to bring forces under imperial control - Economic measures were less successful than administrative reforms, but still helped stabilise the economy
Constantine
- Reforms encouraged ambition among four top co-rulers and their generals and his retirement from imperial office in 305Ce set off internal struggles - In 306CE Constantine, son of Diocletian's co-ruler Constantius, moved to stake his claim as the sole emperor - Defeated all of his rivals by 324 CE - Made new capital city, Constantinople - After 330CE, Constantinople became capital of a united Roman empire - Though he was a good emperor, same problems from before came back as Rome was just too big - The need for protection against external threats became very acute during the late fourth and early fifth centuries CE
Germanic Invasions and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire
= Apart from internal problems, Roman empire faced many military threats - Sasanid and Roman forces clashed repeatedly in Anatolia, Syria, and Mesopotamia - In 260CE, Roman emperor Valerian fell captive to Sasanid forces - Romans and Sasnids continued to fight until sixth century CE, but a series of buffer states between the two empires reduced the intensity of conflict after the third century - Migratory Germanic peoples posed a more serious threat to the Roman empire - During the fifth century CE, Germanic invasions brought end to Roman authority in western half of the Roman empire
Germanic Migrations
- Germanic peoples had migrated from their homelands in northern Europe and lived on the eastern and northern borders of the Roman empires since the second century CE - Most notable were the Visigoths who adopted the Roman ways and contributed a large number of soldiers in the Roman empire - In the interest of social order, Romans discouraged Visigoths and other Germanic people settlements within the empire as they preferred them being the buffer societies outside imperial borders
The Huns
- During late fourth century, the relationship between the Visigoths and Romans changed when the nomadic Huns began a westward migration from their homeland in Central Asia - Spoke a Turkish language and were probably cousins of the nomadic Xiongnu - During mid-fifth century CE, warrior king Attila organized an unstoppable Hun army and invaded Hungary, probed Roman frontiers in the Balkan region, menaced Gaul and northern Italy, and attacked Germanic peoples living on the borders of the Roman empires
Collapse of the Western Roman Empire
- Attila didn't create a state structure, when he died in 453 CE, Huns disappeared as a political and military force - By that time, the Huns had placed pressure on many Germanic peoples that they went into the Roman empire for refuge - They established settlements in the empire - Under the command of Alaric, the Visigoths even stormed and sacked Rome in 410 CE - In 476 CE, imperial authority came to an end when the Germanic general Odovacer deposed Romulus Augustulus - Unlike Han dynasty, the Roman empire didn't entirely fall as imperial authority continued for another millennium in the eastern half of the empire, known as the Byzantine empire - In the western half however, Rome dissolved and the Nomads began to build states
Cultural Change in the Late Roman Empire
Over time the mingling of Roman and Germanic traditions led to a new society called medieval Europe
Prominence of Christianity
- Christianity was most prominent survivor of the western Roman empire - In 313 CE Roman emperor Constantine allowed Christians to practice their faith openly as he though it would make him prevail over his rivals - Late fourth century emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion - During its first three centuries, it grew as a popular religion of salvation favoured by the masses - During the fourth century, however, intellectual elites began to take interest in it
St. Augustine
- Most important intellectual elite was St. Augustine (354-430CE), bishop of north African city of Hippo - Became disillusioned with both Hellenistic philosophy and Manichaeism In 387 CE, while studying in Italy, he converted to Christianity - Augustine's writings made Christianity an intellectually respectable alternative to Hellenistic philosophy and other popular religions of salvation - Christian leaders also turned Christianity into a powerful church - Without a recognized leader, different teachers followed different doctrines
The New Testament
- As Christians became more prominent in the Roman empire, state authorities also promoted efforts to standardise teachings - Emperor Constatine pushed for a clear statement of Christian doctrine as he hoped it would create a foundation for cultural unity in the Roman empire - While trying to define a doctrine, they looked over different writings and debated over which ones were important - By late fourth century, church leaders had come to some consensus and recognised these as the New testament
The Institutional Church
To standardise their faith, Christian leaders instituted a hierarchy of church officials - At the top were the bishop of Rome and the patriarchs of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople - These five authorities wielded a lot of influence - Subordinate to the five principal authorities were bishops - The councils at Nicaea and Chalcedon