Defines the needs of their learners throughout the learning process and enable the practitioner to select appropriate instructional activities.
How do the models of stages of learning assist practitioners?
Transitions between the learning stages are not clearly defined, a learner can be in different stages for different skills, and stages are not dependent on age.
Three considerations concerning models of stages of learning.
Fitts and Posner's Three-Stage Model
Model of learning stages that suggest learners pass through three distinct stages, that are defined by the behavioral tendencies learners display
Cognitive, Associative, and Autonomous Stages
Three stages of the Fits and Posner's Three-Stage Model
Cognitive Stage
Stage of Fits and Posner's Three-Stage Model in which the learner is first introduced to the new motor skill and their primary task is to develop an understanding of the movement.
Movements appear choppy, inconsistent performance, lack of synchronization, and high attentional demand.
Characteristics of a learner in the cognitive stage learning
Verbal instruction and demonstrations
Practitioner's role in the cognitive stage of learning
Associative Stage
Stage of Fits and Posner's Three-Stage Model that is characterized by a marked improvement in performance and the learner becomes committed to refining one particular movement pattern.
Performance becomes more consistent, timing improves, attentional demands decrease, and refinement of error detection and correction abilities
Characteristics of a learner in the associative stage
Developing constructive practice experiences
Practitioner's role in the associative stage of learning
Autonomous Stage
Final stage of Fits and Posner's Three-Stage Model that is reached through countless hours of practice.
Performance becomes automated, few errors, consistent, strategic decision making and detect and correct errors.
Characteristics of a learner in the autonomous stage of learning
Acting as a motivator
Practitioner's role in the autonomous stage of learning
Gentile's Two-Stage Model
Model of stage of learning that emphasized the learner's goal and the influence of task and environmental characteristics on that goal.
"Getting the idea of the movement and fixation/diversification stages
Two stages of Gentile's Two-Stage Model
"Getting the idea of the movement" Stage
First stage of learning in Gentile's Two-Stage Model in which the learner is introduced to a new motor skill.
Development of ability to discriminate between regulator and non-regulatory conditions and development of basic movement pattern
Primary goals of the learner during the "Getting the idea of the movement" stage of Gentile's Two-Stage Model.
Regulatory Conditions
Environmental conditions that specify the movement characteristics necessary to perform the task.
Non-regulatory Conditions
Factors that are not inherently related to producing the appropriate motor response.
Fixation/Diversification Stage
Second and final stage of Gentile's Two-Stage Model, in which the learner has acquired a general idea of requisite movement.
Refinement of the movement pattern (fixation) and adaptation of movement to conform to ever-changing environmental demands (diversification)
Primary goals of the learning during the fixation/diversification stage of Gentile's Two-Stage Model.
Freezing the Degrees of Freedom
Reducing the available degrees of freedom to a more manageable quantity in order to accomplish a tasks goal and is often seen in novice or inexperienced performers.
Stiff, rigid, and inefficiently timed movements
Freezing the degrees of freedom results in what type of movement pattern?
Smoother, faster, and more closely resembling the correct movement.
Freeing the degrees of freedom changes the movement pattern in what way?
Increase in coordination and control, more fluid muscle activity, more efficient energy expenditure, and increased consistency.
How are movement patterns different from experienced performers and inexperienced performers?
Performance Curve
Measures the effectiveness of training or instructional strategies by indicating improvement and inferring consistency.
Negatively Accelerating Curve, Positively Accelerating Curve, Linear Curve, and S-shaped Curve.
Four patterns that a performance curve may follow.
Negatively Accelerating Curve
Most common performance curve where individuals tend to demonstrate a large initial improvement in performance, that slows later in practice.
Positively Accelerating Curve
Performance curve that is characterized by little initial improvement with larger gains occurring later.
Linear Curve
Performance curve that reflects a direct relationship between performance and time.
S-shaped Curve
Performance curve that is a combination of the negative and positively accelerating curves.
Measures represent temporary effects, cannot establish relative permanence, and is calculated through the means of several trials.
Limitations of performance curves
Retention and transfer tests
Tests used to infer that a relatively permanent change in a performance has occurred.
Retention Test
Test that measures the persistence of improved skill performance and is given after a period in which the learner has not engaged in practice.
Post-test
Test that is administered directly following a practice period and is used to find out what a learner can do after practicing a skill.
Transfer Test
Test that measures the degree to which a learner can adapt the practice skill to a different performance situation and is used to distinguish between temporary and permanent performance changes.
Performance Plateau
A period of time during the learning process in which no overt changes in performance occur.