Tag: Development

Introduction

The purpose of this essay is to critically analyse an aspect of professional development and by using relevant reflection techniques to evaluate the development of this skill. The area of clinical practice which will be examined is wound management and the role in which reflection can be used to emphasize the progression of the skills required, improving knowledge base and fundamentally the techniques used to promote safe and evidence based practice. Wound management is an essential part of nursing practice (Gray & Cooper 2001). Additionally, Cutting (2010) states that nurse should have a sound knowledge base when assessing and carrying out the management techniques required. Reflection is a crucial skill and a development technique nurses should utilize to enable them to learn from their past experiences and put what’s been learned into practice to strengthen their clinical approach in future (Jasper 2006). Moreover, by using reflection this essay will deliver further evidence for the need to reflect and enhance skills in this area of practice. By using the chosen reflection tool the essay will provide a logical breakdown of how the skill has been developed and the personal progress within wound management. I will discuss how over my time in university and by combining theories and practical skills has allowed me to build on an essential skill. In conclusion it will be evident the way in which by reflecting on events can enable improved and increase of evidence based knowledge base.

Reflection is a human quality we actively integrate into everyday living and as Johns (2009) explains it allows us to appreciate experiences and how we apply any desired changes. With consideration to implementing this into education and learning, a significant figure was an American philosopher John Dewey (Bulman & Schutz 2004, Brown & Libberton 2007). He provided regulations to enable the understanding of the significance of reflection within study and personal development. Many healthcare policies and frameworks have promoted the development of this work with the focus on delivering safe practice for service users and reflection therefore, plays a fundamental part of nursing education (Timmins 2006). The Department of Health (DOH 1999) developed integrated frameworks for the enhancement of knowledge and development for their staff with a section dedicated to nurses. The framework expects nurses to build on previous understanding, skills and experience within their nursing performance. This framework is further developed within the Nursing and Midwifery Code of Professional Conduct (NMC 2008) who provide guidelines for nursing practice. They state that nurses have a responsibility to take part in suitable learning events which enable them to advance and sustain safe practice. Rycroft-Malone et al (2002) and Priest (2007) support the effectiveness for a nurse in actively applying techniques such a reflection to identify gaps in their knowledge to ensure evidence based practice is put into practice. In contrast Pearsons (2004) earlier work argues that the approaches being used to progress and implement evidence based practice were not successful. In agreement Tagney & Haines (2009) state that nurses are not fully prepared to successfully integrate theory into their clinical practice. Developed therefore over a period of time, were reflective models which Jasper (2003) states allowed nurses to easily clarify their experiences and subsequently understand and explore their actions.

For the objective of this essay the model that will be used is the Gibbs Model of Reflection (1988) (Appendix 1). This model was chosen due to its ability to simply identify a chosen skill and methodically distinguish the learning opportunities and offers a link between the transferring of theory into practice (Hull et al 2005). McCabe & Timmins (2006) argue that the Gibbs cycle of reflection induces the user to concentrate on negative aspects of their practice rather than understanding the positive support of all development. In contrast Bulman & Schutz (2004) and Wilding (2008) describe that the model has the capability to adapt simply to any circumstances and allows the user to clearly translate the knowledge in which they are reflecting. Other models of reflection were studied to ensure the strength of the selected one for the area of development. John’s model (1998) was structured within a clinical environment and promotes the user to supply valid account for the development of clinical skills. Jasper (2003) explains the model comprised of a series of questions similar to Gibbs cycle, but seizes to offer a clear link between theory and practice. A second model which was also taken into account was Bortons (1970). This model is predominantly proposed for students as it allows novice reflectors to suitably recognise their thoughts and feelings within their chosen area (Hull et al 2005). This model was ruled out due to the required level of depth of writing essential for this essay. Gibbs cycle (Appendix 1) consists of six stages that guide the user through the stages of the reflective cycle by asking a chain of questions, this allows the user to structure and easy interpreter guidelines. The model uses a basic approach to reflection and assists the user to provide initially a clear report of the situation or skills being considered and an analysis of feelings connected with the area of development are given. The skills or situation is then evaluated to highlight their existing level of skills, to the skills the user needs or wants to develop. After the main part is finalised the user concludes what they could have done to better the situation and therefore an analysis is then offered on how the situation has enabled development of skills (Bulman & Schutz 2008). Gibbs (1988) then encourages the user to develop an action plan to enable additional development of the area of interest or skill, this further promotes the NMC Code of Conduct (2008) for life long learning. For the following main body of this essay, Gibbs model (1988) will be used to analyse how I have advanced my skills and knowledge base in wound management.

My basic introduction to wound management was within the clinical stimulation laboratories which took place within our first semester in first year at university. Before this point I had no knowledge base or previous experience of wound dressings, management or assessment. Within these classes we were given the chance to practice bandaging, cleansing and assessment skills that would be used within our clinical placements. In conjunction with these practical skills, we received academic lectures from tissue viability nurses which concentrated on standards of care management required and the importance of accurate assessment. One assessment tool explained was abbreviated as TIME. TIME presents a logical and systematic method to the assessment (Young 1997). It was at this stage I appreciated how my poor knowledge base would begin to improve as my first placement was given to me, care of the elderly.

In first year of university my lack of knowledge was a main issue for me. With this in mind I developed an action plan (Appendix 2) which enabled me to examine my areas for development and allow me to recognise the exact learning outcomes I wished to attain and the resources I required to utilise. With the support and aid of my mentor within placement I was given tasks to deliver basic wound care to patients within the clinical area. These learning opportunities interconnected with my action plan enabling the development of my understanding and skills within wound management. Throughout various other clinical placements I have had many chances to advance on my skills, however in my second year community placement I was participating in the care of a patient with a complex wound. The key issue which I felt arose from this opportunity was the ability for me to start connecting theory to practice when selecting suitable dressings and assessment tools. Due to the care being provided on a daily basis until required it allowed my skills to develop and I was able monitor the progression of the wound and the success of the interventions specific to this patient. Following this placement I worked on a personal reflection (Appendix 3) to enable me to identify my strengths and weaknesses so I could transfer my evolving skills into all aspects of my future practice. My management placement in third year has been the revolving point in my three years of developing my wound management abilities. It took place in a surgical orthopaedic ward with high levels of wound management skills being vastly important to the patient’s recovery process. The main subject which arose within this placement was my capability to provide rationale for my care with regards to assessment and treatment of wounds. This clinical environment also offered me a new method to wound care. This approach was providing a holistic approach to my care delivery which included ensuring that accurate hydration of patients skin care was carried out for patients. After this placement I commenced a personal reflection (Appendix 4) to allow me to acknowledge the skills I had developed and highlight areas for development.

Over the last three years my response and feelings related to wound management has changed significantly. When originally being taught wound management within university I felt hesitant in my ability, astonished at the degree of some wounds and concerned my lack of knowledge within this area of nursing care would interfere with me within placement. Having the chance to construct an action plan and work closely with my mentor in first year consequently allowed me to increase my confidence in this area and gave me the basis to identify evidence based practice.In second year my feelings had changed to becoming more assertive in my ability and understanding of wound management. I still remained hesitant in caring for some wounds however; I had the ability to accurately recognise the resources needed to correctly provide wound management gave me assurance. My feelings connected with my practice in third year were entirely different. From using the reflection from second year I developed and became more aware of the role I played in effective wound management. I also was enhancing my ability to holistically care for patients with wounds. One significant lecture in first year by the tissue viability nurse specified we had to care for the patient as a whole and not just the wound a person has; this statement strengthened my practice in third year. This new method gave me confidence in providing rationale for care I was providing; I felt that I was finally achieving the skills required by a registered nurse.

Through the use of reflection over my three years of study it has allowed me to identify strengthens and weaknesses within my clinical practice. My action plan from first year highlighted my poor knowledge base. This allowed me to develop ways in which my I could expand my knowledge being taught in university, by integrating policies and guidelines such as Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network 50 (SIGN 2008) into my studies. This guideline delivers promotion of national guidelines and local protocols which can assist practitioners to ensure their practice is evidence-based and their poor knowledge can be upgraded (Finnie 2000). Within second year it was clear my lack of confidence primarily in caring for complex wound could have made caring for the patient in the precise way impracticable. Through using a holistic and patient cantered method when carrying out care and building a professional relationship with them made this possible. Sources in this subject states that a mixture of evidence based and patient centred approach discussed by Cutting (2008) who describes that the nurse must determine if the technique they are using is of the best importance to the patient and cover all aspects of patient needs. This topic is further studied by Toy (2005) and Solowiej et al (2010) who supported that nurses should fully implement all areas of a holistic approach when planning and caring for wounds. In third year my area for development which became noticeable was taking control and being self confident in my practice. In the beginning this was complex due to the specialised area of wound care and necessary requirements of nurses within the area to be highly experienced. I was fortunate to have a very experienced and skilled mentor to pass on her understanding and perception into practice in this region. Closely working with my mentor allowed me to subdue the areas of limitation and weakness within my nursing practice. Literature within this area reveals a qualitative study carried out by Roberts (2008) explored how students learned from one another, a large portion was devoted to the early skills developed by students came from working directly with their clinical mentors. This study strengthened the need for me to work closely with my mentor to develop vital skills.

As the above reflection highlights, a main issue to evolve in my experience of wound management in first year was my poor knowledge. I had never encountered complex or even basic wound care so having the competence to develop the teachings from university into my clinical practice was of great benefit. University teachings had offered us with a basis of knowledge; it was then the student’s responsibility to further develop all features of this skill. Through the use of applicable learning materials such as developing action plans was of great advantage to me as it helped highlight areas that required strengthened and development. This is reiterated in work by Hackney (2008). He explains that by use of reflection and developing action plans will improve care and initiate professional and self development. Nursing education emphasises heavily on using this area of development which is further discussed by Bulman & Schutz (2004) who state that reflective education allows the student to rationalise their actions and identify areas for development. Further into my practice it became clear that that linking theory to practice was an important skill which guarantees practice is evidence based. Literature within evidence based practice allowed me to make this fundamental skill clearer to me with Tagney & Haines (2009) clarifying that if nurses recognise with the recourses which are accessible the care of patients will be of the greatest level and nurses can be assured in the care they provide. Assessment formed a crucial area within second year that helped to further develop my ability to make use of evidence based practice. In order to make sense of the experience in second year a older yet significant piece of work by Young (1997) provided outstanding basis for me on assessment and documentation highlighting that this skill is vital for nurses to accurately plan and implement the care required. In relation to assessment, second year gave me an insight into how nurses are deskilling themselves by relying on tissue viability nurses. In some clinical environments I came across nurses relying too heavily on the information and suggestions from specialised nurses rather than utilising recourses which were available and using their own skill and knowledge. A recent study by Huynh & Forget-Falcicchio (2005) suggested that nurses are not using their full ability, skills and knowledge when it comes to wound care and that their approach should be part of the holistic care they provide. Finnie (2000) emphasises the requirement for nurses to incorporate clinical guidelines into their practice. By examining this area of literature whilst on placement and applying it within my practice has allowed me to recognise the importance of guidelines and policies. With help from my theoretical teachings and clinical placements I know the care I provide will always be up to the standard necessary. With my final placement and the main issue discussed being the ability to provide rationale for my practice, relevant literature has allowed me to simply translate and understand this area of development. Timmins (2006) and Wilding (2008) further made it possible for me to identify that the development of this skill was a vital part of my educational training. Towards the end of my placement my mentor gave me the opportunity to discuss the need for me to work autonomously in my practice. My mentor was invaluable in allowing me and explaining to me the importance of holistic care. Since this was explained to me I have been enthusiastic in applying this in my clinical practice and also relating it to my part-time job within a care home.

In conclusion it has become apparent that by the use of Gibbs model of reflection (1988) has allowed me to accurately investigate and explore how over my last three years of study my skills in wound management have developed. I discovered that by researching the evidence based practice guidelines and recommendations within my early experiences of wound management, my skills enhanced. By following the Gibbs model recommendations in developing action plans enabled me to highlight my weaknesses and allowed me to develop in these areas. My concerns of my lack of confidence soon began to settle by using techniques promoted within the model. Concluding what I have learned in my second year and the development of the skill it became evident that linking the teachings from university and from clinical practice made an impact in the way I carried out these procedures as my confidence increased. From the process of recognising a knowledge shortage, action planning and reflecting on practice began a process of self learning that will only further my professional development. The first reflection specified the role in which I was starting to play in wound management. Within third year practice is aimed at working autonomously and having the ability to provide rationale for my approaches and care, using reflection was of great benefit to me. Furthermore, by completing this assignment it has given me further understanding into the importance of reflection. Johns (2002) recognises reflection as a valuable and life long tool in developing healthcare practice, in agreement Jasper (2003) further explains that by using reflection nurses can provide high quality of care and be confident in their actions.

Reflection

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Introduction
TASK 1: PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS REVIEW

This assignment will examine my personal and professional skills through my own evaluation and assessment of my colleagues. The purpose of the assessment is to identify my weaknesses and strengths. It also helps in identifying some techniques to improve and enhance my skills. This will be analysed through the accomplishment of personal audit.

Activity 1: Personal Skills Review

Stress Management

According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984) stress is a result of the imbalance between demands and resources or when pressure exceeds one’s ability to cope. Stress management was developed on the idea that stress is not the result of a stressor but rather on one’s capability to cope and the ability to respond to it. Also, if the person possesses or can use adequate coping skills, then stress may not actually be a result or develop because of the stressor.

In my personal experience, I have learned to face damaging challenges at home and in the workplace. When I am anxious I think of some activities to help release the tension. I exercise regularly. Regular physical activity is very effective in fighting stress. There are a lot of physical activities that is very effective in distressing. I just choose a particular activity that suits my personality otherwise it will just add to the heavy load of emotional burden. I find some activities like jogging, brisk walking, cycling and aerobics dancing fun and enjoyable when participated with people I am comfortable to be with. My other ways of fighting stress and anxiety is to be in the company with happy people.

According to Hargreaves, (1998) stress is expensive. Stress related illness leads towards the increase of financial cost. For example when I become sick due to stress related illness at work, my medication was shouldered by the management. I was also paid with my whole salary during the period that I was absent from work. These are one of the cases where stress related illness added cost for the company. .

Time Management .

Manktelow (2006) writes that the starting point for effective time management is to set priorities. When I am faced with a variety of choices competing for my attention and time I prioritize things because it will help me decide which path to take. Setting my goals help me identify and focus on my priorities that help me evaluate what needs to be done first. By doing this, I can do things easily and use time effectively.

Susan Ward (2011) has pointed out five (5) time management techniques which I have practiced. These are:

Recognize you can’t do it all: I decide what roles and activities are important. The important thing is, I am happy and healthy the way I am spending my time. I don’t force myself into doing things I don’t like to please other people.
Prioritize: I plan things and review my list of what to do on a particular day and what things that must be done. I give attention on the most important activity on hand.
Learn to say “Yes” and “No”: When I am ask to commit on something, I would say “no” if I really can’t and “yes” if it’s equally important to me.
Unplug: There are times when it’s important or useful not to “be connected” all the time. Recognize what situation must be given attention and disregard things that appear to be nuisance.
Take time off: Weekend is my personal and family day. If I need to be with my family, I set time for them. I also allow myself to take some refreshing time alone with my friends.

Good time management helps me control my time and life. I have maintained a balanced work and personal activities. This gave me flexibility in dealing with challenges in life and respond to new opportunities.

Assertiveness

Winstanley (2005) wrote that assertiveness is expressing your needs, your wants, opinions, feelings and beliefs and get these met in direct, honest and subtle way. It is also respecting the needs of the other party.

Though I speak out my opinion at times, it will only come out as that because I don’t assert enough to get what I want. In my experience, my promotion to Human Resource Management Officer II, at the Human Resource Department of the Livelihood Corporation was delayed because I was too shy to ask my manager to send me to a one week external training program. I was not able to attend the scheduled training program and had to wait for months for it to be conducted again.I eventually got promoted only after 6 months of waiting. It could be much earlier if I had been assertive.

According to Cooper (2008), there are some techniques that can provide you with the opportunity to slide up or slide down in an attempt to assert your personal views or opinion:

To Slide Down: This is being able to communicate our feelings and thoughts in an open and direct way, showing respect of the rights and feelings of others and them to respect our own.

Empathy: It understands the depth of another person’s feelings.
Active listening: It is giving importance to the other person’s point of view.
Focus on facts and issues (not the person): Being objective and not subjective
Good quality questions: Ask questions relative to the issue
Being non-emotional: Being professional in dealing with the matter

To Slide Up:Is defined as showing rage, aggressive body language and forcing other people to do what you want.

Body and hand language: shows aggressiveness
Eye contact: insisting and compelling
Facial expressions: indicates dominance
Pace, tone and volume of speech: argumentative
Directness of language: no respect

Assertiveness is a mutual and open exchange of views and understanding. The slide down technique must be used all the time when assertiveness is needed to be projected in dealing with other people in common circumstances.

Activity 2: Professional Skills Review

Coaching Skills

It is the responsibility of the human resource manager to produce a well trained and motivated work force in the organization. Employees’ knowledge and skills needs to be continuously improved to perform productively to achieve personal and organizational goals. .

Maharlika, Complex is a subsidiary of the Livelihood Corporation, a government owned and controlled corporation. The company is engaged in providing financial aid to farmers and help these farmers sell their agricultural goods in the market. The employees of Maharlika Complex.,are monitoring the progress of the vendors (farmers) in the market to ensure that these farmers will be able to pay the loaned amount from the company. This is the government’s way of helping small farmers augment their living, helping them financially from planting to selling their products.

Counselling and mentoring are conducted by Maharlika employees to the farmers and vendors. More of the counselling was given to farmers whose plantations were devastated by natural disaster. It helps to motivate them cultivate their lands to have better produce. The employees were effective in their counselling skills and able to uplift the self-esteem of the farmers. They are good in counselling because they were trained and coached how to do it professionally by their mentors.

Having worked at the Livelihood Corporation, I have observed how the project manager of Maharlika Complex effectively exercises her coaching style. She has the ability to communicate with people well with good understanding to varying traits and attitude of each individual working for the company. The manager has effectively managed to apply the coaching cycle of Cooper (2008), in her attempt to teach the staff with new skills and learning as ways of motivating them to perform at their best.

The Coaching Cycle

The cycle starts with telling the employees of what, how and why a particular task needs to be done. Showing how a task should be done is optional, giving the person the leeway to perform in his own convenience and style. In order for the employees to be competent and confident to do or start a new task, they are given the opportunity to practice what has been learned through coaching. The manager coach then monitors and observes the performance level of each individual and assess in what areas there is a need to be improved. After assessment a constructive feedback is facilitated where the discussion between the coach and the individual is light and a two-way process.

According to Armstrong, S. and Mitchell, B. (2008) employees want mentoring in two areas: (1) the skill they need to succeed in the job and (2) the skills they need to build a satisfying career.

The skills they need to succeed in the job are mentored through on going training and development where the professional experience of the manager is applied in one-on-one coaching.The new employees of Maharlika Complex were closely monitored by their mentors who know the job they were doing, and willing to take them by the hand then teach and lead them to a new defined skill for future career advancement. It stimulates enthusiasm and energy so that the employees keep moving forward towards their goals (Merlevede, P.E. and Bridoux,D.C, 2004).

Leadership Skills

In the writings of Hersey and Blanchard (n.d.) a Participative Leader seeks to involve other people in the process, including subordinates, peers, and superior. Often, however, as it is within the managers’ whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the immediate team. The question of how much influence others are given thus may vary on the manager’s preferences and beliefs, and a whole spectrum of participation is possible.

The department managers of Maharlika Complex exercised different styles of leadership in their assigned areas. In the case of the Project Manager he has been very successful in being slightly autocratic because he has the full knowledge of how a task or project is to be accomplished.The project manager is not over using his capacity by controlling every movement of his subordinates. He listens to some suggestionsand even considered implementation of the suggestion if found to be beneficial for the project, the department and the organization as a whole. The human resource manager in the other hand projects a participative leadership where she as the manager shared leadership with the staff members. This gives employees the feeling of satisfaction when some responsibilities are placed in their care. Shared leadership is like a partnership between the manager and the employees for the purposes of developing a motivated and co-operative working environment.

The management of Maharlika Complex is developing employees that have potentials to become good leaders. Some of the company’s employees have the leadership skills.The managers are encouraging these people to work hard and develop their leadership skills not only for their personal and professional growth but also for the benefit of the company. Regular counselling was conducted to boost the self-esteem of the employees. An effective counselling eliminates an undesirable behavioural aspect of an individual and creates a positive attitudinal character. Good leaders have confidence and the natural characteristic of influencing other people. These leadership skills are being taught by the managers to their staff for them to develop to become good mentors and leaders in the future.

The management of Maharlika has adapted the 7 steps to ensure an effective mentoring relationship as researched by Merlevede and Bridoux (2003). The following steps are:

first step is “choosing a protege” where the leader chooses to mentor a person because the leader knows there is a lot of potential present in that person.
second step is “connecting”, where the mentor and the protege would establish relationship skills, and rapport to ensure that mentoring will run smoothly.
third step is “outlining the relationship” that once certain level of trust is achieved the mentor figures out what the mentoring will be about.
fourth step is “getting to the bottom of it” where the mentor identifies what might have caused for a protege from achieving goals and then to take some actions for the protege to come close to the goal.
fifth step is “concrete action” where the mentor sees the protege taking his own destiny in his own hands and not relying or depending on his mentor.
sixth step is “following up” where the mentor can ask questions to the protege to know how the mentoring was absorbed.
seventh step is “get out of the way” is the period in time for the mentor and the protege to part ways letting the protege to loose and ready to face new challenges on his own.
Multi-tasking Skill

Multi-tasking is the ability of an individual to perform multiple tasks all at the same time. It is not only limited to the managers to do multi tasking, but it is also performed by the people from the ranks. It is performing loads of tasks in a limited period of time. To get better results and output from an individual performing multi task, he should be prepared and willing to do the job, well trained to perform it, and he must love to do it. Only a motivated individual can successfully accomplish and produce good output from loads of responsibilities placed on his shoulder. Otherwise, if the management will assign multiple tasks to an individual who is half hearted to perform it, the quality of the results will suffer.

Maharlika Complex once implemented multi tasking when the management decided to stream down the workforce. The employees were given the option if they wanted to stay or settle for early retirement. Most of the older personnel opted to be paid off. The jobs they left were distributed to the employees who stayed. The personnel manager looks into the job function of each employee and distributed these jobs to employees having the same function. In this case, the employee did not find it difficult to perform because of its similar skill needed to perform the task. Adjustment was made and eventually the multi tasking works. It saved time and cost and the employees were motivated to work efficiently because the managers themselves were also performing the same.

There was little mentoring done on the employees that were left behind. It is because the new tasks that were added to their responsibility were similar or hold the same function with the task they perform.The counselling and mentoring were concentrated on how to manage their time effectively and deal with stress.

The counselling was intensive because of the additional workload added to their responsibility. A group counselling was conducted twice a month to ease tension and stress for the employees doing the multi-tasking. As part of the counselling session, a time management seminar was also conducted. It is to help employees identify goals and learn to prioritize activities to get things done effectively. They were also counselled and mentored to keep diaries of planned activities to avoid missing important tasks.

With the effective counselling technique the employees of Maharlika Complex were motivated and committed to the tasks assigned to them. Mentorship was also emphasized to develop the leadership potential of the employees.

TASK 2: PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

This group activity will help me and my co-group members to identify our strengths and weaknesses and analyse what should be done in order to enhance and develop our personal and professional skills. We will listen to each of our experiences told and give our insights to help each other in achieving our personal aspirations in life.

Activity 1: Personal Audit

A. Group sharing on Professional and Personal Life Experiences

I have discussed and shared with my group my professional and personal success and failures in life and they gave their comments and suggestions how to develop and enhance my skills based on their personal assessment on my experience.

My co-group members Hina and Hanushka have their own personal suggestions on how I would be able to enhance my strengths and develop my weaknesses. To enhance my skill in time management they have suggested that I should continue to focus on each important planned activity. In this way I will be able to accomplish what is needed to be done and will still have time to do other important matters.

We have also discussed on my lack of confidence to assert to get the things I want or to achieve. They have suggested that:

I should build my confidence;
I should learn to exercise my rights;
I should be firm;
I should not be intimidated; and
I should know the relevance and importance on what I am asserting for.

Another professional skill that I have to enhance is my coaching ability. I know that in some situations I am able to get the attention of the people I am given instructions to. They learn easily what was taught of them because I was patient enough to guide them step by step on what to do. My co-group members have suggested that I should attend some coaching trainings in order for me to get the techniques to enhance my skill.

B. PERSONAL AUDIT QUESTIONNAIRE

Please tick the appropriate option on the following rating scale (1-5) 1 being the weakest and 5 being the strongest.

1) I lack confidence in expressing my needs.

1___2___3___4___5___

2) I manage time effectively.

1___2___3___4___5___

3) I am not confident to lead.

1___2___3___4___5___

4) I cope with stress well.

1___2___3___4___5___

5) I manage a number of tasks well.

1___2___3___4___5___

6) I do not have confidence to give presentations.

1___2___3___4___5___

7) I am patient when imparting knowledge and skills to others.

1___2___3___4___5___

8) I do not have confident to influence others.

1___2___3___4___5___

9) I motivate people to perform.

1___2___3___4___5___

10) I do not direct people to do tasks.

1)___ 2___3___4___5___

C. Professional and Personal Audit(1 is weakest ; 5 is strongest)

Based on the personal assessment made by two persons on my personal and professional skills it was identified that I lack assertiveness. I had to develop my confidence to express what I want and develop my skills to lead effectively. It also shows my capability to coach and the strengths I have in time and stress management. If I develop my confidence and assertiveness, I know I will be able to overcome my weakness when it comes to leadership and assertiveness.

I should take some time to reflect on what to do first to proceed with the learning process to achieve my objective. The learning style I am adapting is the Reflectors Style. I am comfortable with this kind of learning because it gives me the opportunity to reflect on the information I get and compare to my personal experiences. I will get some techniques on how to assert by collecting informative reading materials. Watching video on personality development will also be considered to improve my confidence. Getting feedback from a friend will also help me in my learning process to gain confidence.

Activity 2: Progression Plan

A. Personal SWOT Analysis

As a result of making this analysis I can give emphasis on my strengths and focus on remedies to overcome my weaknesses. This will aid me in taking possible advantage of the opportunities at hand.

B. Development Plan
Skills Audit: Identifying Areas to Improve

In order to attain my goals, I have to strengthen my leadership skills. I need to improve my cognitive ability, strategic thinking, analytical ability, ability to delegate and influence, ability to learn from experiences and the ability to build technical competence. Developing my confidence is also a way to become assertive and stand up to get what I want.

To aid me in achieving this, I had to adapt the Reflector Style of Learning, one of the learning styles identified by Honey and Mumford (2008). This type of learning suits my personality. To develop my learning ability, I collect data, review and think carefully before making any conclusion or decision. I learn more by observing others, listening to their views and reflecting their leadership techniques.

I had to follow this learning style technique suggested by Honey and Mumford below:

Observing individuals or groups at work – Observing on what good leaders do and reflecting what I need to do to improve.
Reviewing what has happened and thinking about what they have learned – This is learning through experience and reflect what to do next to improve.
Producing analyses and reports doing tasks without tight deadlines – Evaluate the observations I made and do the things learned through observation to improve develop skills.

As part of my personal development plan I will consider the suggestions of Corttrell (2003) to make a structured process of reflection in order to develop my understanding on myself, my choices, what I want to achieve, how to plan and how to take action on improving my work. This will help me reflect on my weaknesses and think of better ways to minimize them. Trough reflection I will be able to:

Make sense out of experience: this will help me learn and develop my skills in leadership and assertiveness
Standing back : being observant and not in the midst of the activity to see the level of confidence of the people around
Repetition: practice to assert on small things first to gradually develop confidence
Deeper honesty: admitting my flaws and work to rectify them
Weighing up: help me evaluate the advantages of being assertive and disadvantages of being submissive.
Clarity: review activities done will help me see things clearly not only on my success but on my failed plans because of being non-assertive.
Understanding: I will be able learn things in a deeper level like gaining insights through reflector style of learning
Making judgement: reflection aids me in deciding things whether to assert or not.

This plan will be carried out by me as a guide to develop my personal and professional skills.

The Monitoring Process

Through monitoring my progress I should be able to know if my planned activities for the realization of my aims are achieved. It will help me recognize if my learning style applied to achieve my goals is effective. A monitoring device to determine my progress is provided. I will solicit feedback from my colleagues, coaches and mentors.

Monitoring progress on learning goals

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS

Armstrong, S. and Mitchell, B., 2008. The Essential HR Handbook. USA:Book-mart Press
Cooper,S., 2008. Brilliant Leader. Great Britain:Pearson Education Ltd
Cottrell, S. 2003. Skills for Success. New York:Palgrave Macmillan
Hargreaves, G., 1998. Stress Management. The Essential Guide to Thinking and Working Smarter. London:Marshal Publishing
Lazarus, R. and Folkman, S. 1984. Psychological Stress and Coping Process. New York:Springer Publishing Company:ISBN:0826141919
Manktelow, J., 2006. Manage Your Time. London:DK
Merlevede, P.E. and Bridoux, D.C., 2004. Mastering Mentoring and Coaching with Emotional Intelligence. Wales:Crown House Publishing Ltd.
Winstanley, D., 2005. Personal Effectiveness. London:CIPD

WEBSITE

1.Wikipedia (2010). Stress Appraisal and Coping. 8 April 2011: www.uk.ask.com/wiki/stress_management.

2.www.spiritize.blogspot.com/2007/05/assertiveness-training.html. Notes to Self-Assertiveness

3.Hersey and Blanchard (n.d) Chairing Meetings.03 March 2011

4.http://www.blessingwhite.com/helping_others_succeed_gc.asp?gclid=CIjlpMyY46cCFQod4QoduBCv9A Helping Others Succeed:successful coaching Relationships are Custom Built

5.www.davidbonham-carter.com/assertiveness-training-book.html. Chairing Meetings

6. www.coachingnetwork.org.uk/resourcecentre/whatarecoachingandmentoring.html

7.Ward, S. (2011).Time Management.8 April 2011: www.sbinfocanada.about.com/od/timemanagement/a/getmoretime.htm

8.www.changingminds.org/discipline/leadership/styles/participative_leadership.html.

Abstract

The completion of this project would not have been possible without the help and assistance of my supervisor Prof. Paul Wagstaff and Kingston University lab technicians Dean Wells and Cliff Searle. Tremendous thanks must be given for all of their time and efforts in aiding with this investigation. It served as a good insight to the nature of an engineering project and the considerations which must be taken in order to stick to given deadlines.

Project Introduction

Types of Wind Turbine

The type of turbine is defined by its method of creating rotation; lift or drag based. An example of a drag based turbine is the Savonius Wind Turbine design, Fig 1. Whereas a drag powered turbine uses the pressure difference on either side of the turbines axis to force rotation, a lift powered turbine utilises pressure differences around the surface of the blade itself. All modern turbines are lift based machines as even though drag based designs have improved significantly, the limitations involved are much greater than those of lift based turbines. According to Gipe, (1995, p171) “When examining the portion of the frontal area covered by the wind turbines blades, lift devices easily produce at least 50 times more power per unit blade area than drag devices.”

Lift devices are then further defined by the orientation of their rotating axis or prop shaft; either vertical or horizontal axis. The two solutions each have their own relative advantages and disadvantages and therefore are suited for different applications.

Horizontal axis wind turbines face the wind and use the lift produced to rotate the blades perpendicular to the wind direction. The gearbox and generator are usually located in the ‘hub’ at the top of the tower.

Horizontal axis systems operate at a lower RPM but higher torque and can be more efficient than equivalently sized vertical axis systems. As they can be manufactured on a much larger scale they can produce much higher maximum power ratings also. Modern turbines incorporate a pitching device to allow the blades to reduce the lift they provide in high winds in order to prevent damage to the system without completely shutting down.

The size of the large horizontal turbines however means they require larger average wind speeds to overcome the very large inertial forces to self start. It also then makes them very expensive to produce, transport, install and maintain. This is not helped by the fact the machinery is located at the top of the high towers.

Horizontal systems must also face the wind in order to extract its energy so requires a yaw mechanism so it can reorient itself when the wind changes direction. This occurs electronically via internal motors with the larger turbines although simpler devices such a tailfin can be incorporated into smaller designs. This extra mechanical requirement only adds to the cost of installing and maintaining a large horizontal axis turbine.

Figure 2 – Vestas V164 7.0MW HAWT c/o http://www.vestas.com

Horizontal axis wind turbines therefore, such as the Vestas V164, Fig 2, are usually deployed where the wind is relatively high, constant and predictable, usually either offshore or in sparsely populated areas to minimise visual impact for local residents.

Vertical axis wind turbines operate at a higher RPM but lower torque than equivalent horizontal turbines. They can also accept wind from any direction so require no yaw mechanisms for when the wind changes direction.

As they are generally smaller they create less visual objection and rotate with less noise.

The fact the gearbox and mechanisms do not need to be as high as horizontal axis wind turbines means they are cheaper to install and maintain.

If the wind speed does exceed the maximum, unlike the horizontal, the vertical axis turbine cannot pitch down its blades and must shut down to prevent the system being damaged. It is for these reasons that vertical turbines are suited to urban areas where wind direction can be lower and more unpredictable, as well as having less impact on the people living in the area. A common vertical axis wind turbine being installed is the Quiet Revolution QR5, Fig 3.

Wind Turbine Theory

In order to complete the project successfully a solid understanding of the wind turbine principles that will affect its performance must be grasped so that they are considered during the design process.

The aim of the turbine is to convert the energy in the wind into a useful form of energy, namely electrical energy. It does the by capturing the wind and rotating to drive a generator which converts the kinetic energy into stored electrical energy. The turbine blades of lift based devices are airfoil profile shapes which utilise the lift produced to convert it to a rotational force, i.e. Torque.

The lift acts perpendicular to mean chord on a symmetrical airfoil profile. Because of this a vertical axis turbine can only utilise a certain component of this lift force due to the nature of its rotation.

Figure 4 – VAWT Blade Vector Diagram c/o http://www.traviscarrigan.com

An optimum angle of attack must be achieved so that the profile is generating enough lift although with vertical axis wind turbines, if the angle of attack is too high the drag increases to the point where the resultant torque output is reduced.

Horizontal axis turbines can operate at much higher angles of attack so that more of the lift is converted to rotational torque.

Betz Limit

The energy transfer between kinetic energy in the wind and the turbine cannot be 100% efficient. The limit of the maximum fraction of power any turbine can extract from the wind can be shown mathematically to be 16/27 – or 59.3%. This occurs when the velocity reduction ratio (b) is 1/3, Swift-Hook (2011). The velocity reduction ratio is the ratio between the relative speeds of the incoming wind to the wind leaving the turbine.

The turbine system will also inevitably not be 100% mechanically efficient so the Betz limit of 59.3% is an ideal that can never be achieved. The most efficient modern turbines operate at 35-40% efficiency.

Cyclic Loading

As it is only when the blades are travelling into the wind they create lift, and therefore rotational force, the torque output of the turbine operates cyclically. Some turbine designs, such as the Quiet Revolution QR5 vertical axis wind turbine, Fig 3, have blades which occupy a range of angular locations and create lift along its complete length. This reduces, if not eliminates, the cyclic loading effects.

Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless value which represents a ratio between the inertial and viscous forces of an object moving through a fluid. As it travels through the molecules of the gas they effectively attach to the surface of the object, creating what in known as a ‘boundary layer’. This boundary layer effects the aerodynamic properties of the object as molecules outside of it react with it as they would the object itself. This boundary layer is very complex to calculate and predict. The Reynolds number serves to provide a numerical, more objective description of the surface conditions so that the behaviour of the object can be better predicted and compared in experimental conditions.

The Reynolds number is calculated as follows:

Where: ? = density of the fluid

? = dynamic viscosity of the fluid

? = kinematic viscosity

V = relative velocity of the object to the fluid

L = the length the fluid travels

The higher the Re number, the better the attached flow over the object. Wortman (1983, p76) notes however that ‘small scale model tests are of questionable value because aerodynamic performance of the blades deteriorates at low Reynolds numbers.’

Solidity

The parameter ‘solidity’ is a ratio of the combined blade area to the total swept area of the turbine. It is a critical factor for designers of wind turbines. To determine the solidity the following equation can be used, Paraschivoiu (2002, p57):

Where: n = number of blades

C = chord length of the blades

S = total swept area of the turbine

L = the length the blades

Tip Speed ratio

A crucial factor in ensuring the turbine operates at maximum output is determining the optimum tip speed ratio, ?. This is the ratio of tip speed compared with the speed of the wind which powers it. If the turbine rotates at a ? which is too small most of the wind will pass undisturbed through the structure, meaning it is not extracting as much energy as possible. On the other hand if the blades travel at a ? which is too high, the blades will be travelling through disturbed air from the previous one, lowering the aerodynamic efficiency, or even effectively acting as a wall blocking the wind from passing altogether (Manwell et al). Solidity of the blades will also have an effect on its output. Solidity is defined as the blade area divided by the total swept area of the turbine blades and the result is effectively a ratio.

Project Definition

The objective of this project is to redesign the existing vertical axis wind turbine and construct a functional model to test in the Kingston University wind tunnel. The project utilises previous investigations, most notably for the existing model components.

Previous experiments have operated the turbine with a negative angle of attack meaning direct numerical comparisons will be limited. Recommendations on the design of the turbines construction will be taken on during the design phase in order to maximise the probability of a successful outcome.

The parameters of the turbine will be defined based on basic wind turbine principles so that their effects can be observed on testing.

Recommendations for further investigations or development of the current design will also be made.

Project Aims

The primary aim of the project is to gather experimental data to analyse in order to validate the design changes.

During the design phase specific focus will be given to reducing the start up speed of the turbine as this will give the design a distinct advantage for real world applications. The method for achieving this will be to reduce the moment of inertia of the turbine by manufacturing a lighter blade design.

The testing will also be based around investigating the effect of the augmenter on turbine output.

Another parameter under investigation is the maximum achievable power of the turbine. This will be deduced by applying various loads under various wind velocities.

Project Deliverables

The deliverables associated with achieving the aims of the investigation are as follows:

A Project Planning Report
New blade concept design
Detailed blade design
CAD model
Engineering Drawings
Blade manufacture
Complete turbine assembly
Wind tunnel analysis
Seminar presentation and Poster
Final Report

Background

The turbine consists of an internal rotating structure surrounded by a metal augmenter which aims to direct the airflow onto the blades in a more controlled manner. The blades are a NACA 0018 symmetrical airfoil profile and are constructed out of fibreglass with a rapid prototype core mesh. The complete turbine can be seen in Fig 5.

Figure 5 – Previous Turbine Design

The mechanism employed to allow a range of pitch angles (+5o to -10o) in the previous model can be seen below in Fig 6. The angle of attack was altered by rotating it about a pivot using a bracket with an extended slot. This was then secured in place by a small nut. It appears this was not strong enough as a shaft extending from the central spindle to the blade was also added to give extra strength to the trailing edge.

Figure 6 – Previous Pitch Fixing Mechanism

There are 2 bearings mounted into two steel crosspieces to support the turbine, which in turn is supported by a large lattice framework. Below the turbine is a torque box hub concentric with the shaft.

The augmenter consists of eight folded steel surfaces around the circumference to direct the airflow onto the incoming blades, simultaneously increasing its lift while decreasing the drag of the system as a whole by directing it away from the blades travelling out of the wind. The turbine is omni-directional meaning it should produce the same results regardless of wind direction. The upper and lower surfaces connecting the vertical surfaces are tapered toward the turbine to direct more of the available wind onto the blades.

The previous model had been completed yet was not constructed to the optimum configuration that has been described. Also the maximum wind speed had been exceeded when it was placed in the wind tunnel which led to a catastrophic failure of the model as the RPM was too high and an imbalance in the rotor mass led to vibration, causing a collision between the turbine and augmenter. The augmenter was also distorted.

Literature Review

Ben Davis (2009)

Ben Davis investigated various blade vertical lean angles to assess the optimum configuration. The conclusion was that 0o, i.e. no lean, gave the best power output results.

The absolute data and results will not be comparable for this investigation though as the blades were pitched at a negative angle of 10o.

David Camacho – Kingston University

David Camacho identified that the ratio of the blades height (h) and the diameter of their rotation (d) plays a vital role in the overall efficiency and power output of a vertical axis wind turbine. This was determined to be at its optimum at h/d = 0.625 and has been shown that any deviation from this has a detrimental effect on the results so it is this attribute which took priority during the design process.

David also investigated various vertical lean angles of the blades by using CAD and CFD to derive as above that 0o is indeed the optimum position.

Max McDougall (2010)

Max McDougall’s investigation is the latest and much of the previous structure has been salvaged in order to save time where manufacturing new components would be unnecessary. The data however is of very limited use for comparison as Max pitched the blades at -10o (with the leading edge closer to the axis of rotation than the trailing edge) – despite him quoting it to be +10o. For this reason the real data produced is redundant for the current investigation.

The start up speed for the turbine was found to be reduced from 9m/s to 4m/s when the augmenter was included although without it required a manual start by hand. The upper limit of the wind speed in this investigation was over 20m/s – the current investigation would not expect to expose the wind turbine to such high speeds.

It was also noted that the investigation should be restricted to operating the turbine at below 200rpm as deflections in the blades and prop shaft were visible at these speeds. This also is expected to be exceeded.

Design Concept Generation

Assessment

Once an understanding of the task was gathered, work began on appraising the existing structure and assessing which remaining parts could be salvaged for the rebuild. The triangular pieces which fix the blades to the central spindle would have to be recycled regardless as they were costly and complex to manufacture. This was a driving factor with regard to optimising the height to diameter ratio.

As mentioned previously the structure had failed catastrophically so deconstruction of certain elements was not as straightforward as possible. Once the frame was removed the cruciform pieces fixing the centre spindle to the supports were easily removed. The augmenter could then be removed leaving the skeleton of the turbine itself. Members that had been added to secure the blade angles had snapped leaving the remains of its shaft in the central nut securing main shaft. This subsequently had to be sawn off as the thread of the main spindle had been ruined. After cutting the thread again the remaining nut was removed and the model reduced to its component parts.

Design Concept

The decision was taken to reduce the height of the turbine blades to meet the h/d requirements for sake of time and ease of manufacture. The height of the blades was determined by the existing diameter which currently was 0.42m, hence:

To reduce the weight as far as possible it was decided to manufacture them as a hollow structure from a lightweight composite material. This led to a concept which involves producing the complete blade as two separate halves and bonding them together.

Detailed Design
Blade Design

As mentioned the blade concept is to have them as light as possible and achieving this with a hollow composite structure. The final design is shown below in Fig 7. The outermost shell is 265mm long at its outer edge. The end caps are thicker than the aerodynamic surface to aid its strength and allow for tapping threaded holes for assembly. This is the same on the inner shell so that the end caps have three times the thickness of the aerodynamic surface once assembled.

Figure 7 – Blade Concept Design

The internal profile of the end caps for the inner shell must be altered from the basic NACA 0018 to allow for mating. This profile is shown in Fig 8.

Figure 8 – Internal Blade Profile

Material Selection and Manufacture

The blades were manufactured using ‘Depression Moulding’, Gay & Hoa (2007, p19). One mould and blade half was made initially so that the thickness and finish could be assessed. Producing them in this way meant the exact length required for the opposite halve could be achieved and incorporated into the opposite mould.

The material used for the blades is Kingston University stock composite of bi-dimensional woven prepreg Carbon Fibre with E650-02 42% Resin.

As the material was hand laid and with prepreg the only consideration was the angular direction when defining the construction. Having a symmetrical layup is very important as unsymmetrical laminae cause a warped final product as a result of the curing and cooling cycle. A bending-extension coupling, Bij ? 0, occurs where a force is exerted in the x and y direction of the lamina, Barbero (2011, p182). The definition of a balanced laminate is that ‘for every +? there is another at –?…; and for each 0o lamina there is a complimentary 90o lamina with the same thickness and material’ Barbero (2011, p184) – although as mentioned the material and thickness considerations is negated by the use of prepreg.

The laminar orientation is symmetrical and balanced at [0/90/0/90].

CAD Design

A CAD model was produced for the entire assembly using the SolidWorks package, in order to assess its physical parameters at the design stage, Fig XXX.

Figure 9 – Complete Turbine Model

The final turbine design has the following physical parameters:

Blade Height (m)0.265
Turbine Diameter (m)0.424
h/D0.625
Swept Area (m^2)0.112
Blade Chord (m)0.078
Blade Area (m^2)0.02067
Number of Blades3
Solidity5.519

Manufacture
Blades

To manufacture the moulds a SolidWorks CAD model was made in order to be converted to an STL file which was loaded into the CNC milling machine, Fig 10, at Kingston University. The material chosen was high density foam readily available from university stock.

Figure 10 – Moulds in CNC Milling Machine

Once the moulds were completed they had to be finished by hand. This included filing down the sharp edges around the outside of the billet in order to prevent any damage to the bag in which it was to be cured. More importantly, the inner surface of the mould needed to be smoothed to an appropriate surface finish as any roughness would be shown on the aerodynamic surface of the blade as the Carbon Fibre was cured in a vacuum. This would be detrimental to the efficiency of the blade so a rough sand paper was used, followed by a fine grade.

Also in the corners the milling machine left a small radius form the tool. These were removed by hand to ensure a clean corner for mating of the two halves.

Once the finish was satisfactory, heat proof tape was laid onto the mould surface, Fig 11, to improve its smoothness and also to allow easier removal of the piece once it was cured. Special attention was given to minimise the overlapping or gaps down the span of the blade as these also would be visible on the blade surface.

The method of layup was to place the aerodynamic surface and end caps separately but with an overlap to form one solid piece.

The Carbon Fibre was removed from the freezer where it stored and allowed to defrost in its protective bag. The profiles for the surfaces and end caps were marked out at the appropriate angles to the composite orientation and labelled for order of insertion, Fig 12. The initial surface pieces were laid at the correct 265mm length, and then increased consecutively by 1mm to allow for the required overlap at the seams. The surface and end caps were laid in alternate order, also alternating orientation on each respectively for strength.

On the aerodynamic surface, four layers of Carbon Fibre were used but on each end six were applied. This then means that when the two halves are mated, each end is twelve layers thick – three times that of thickness along the blade span. This extra thickness allows depth for holes to be tapped to secure it to the turbine structure and also gives strength to allow the loads being applied to be transferred over a greater area, reducing the risk of failure.

After laying in each piece a roller was used to squeeze out any potential air pockets and while working the area was kept clean of dust or any small pieces of debris which may be added to the piece. The use of prepreg is useful for this as the resin content is higher than desired for the final part and the removal of this resin during curing helps to eliminate these. If any of these flaws in the material occurred they would create an impurity and potential weakness in the blade as it would act as a stress concentration point. Each 1% of these trapped in the laminate leads to a 7% reduction in intralaminar shear strength and any defects of 2% and above leads to a ‘significant reduction in compressive strength’, Barbero (2011, p74).

The theory of imbalanced laminae was proven as a [0, 30, 90, -30, 0] lay up was attempted initially. The piece was removed from the mould and was indeed warped, Fig 13, which was most likely caused by inaccurate application of the 30o and -30o lamina.

The completed layup was then wrapped in a breathable fabric. This will prevent any air pockets being caught in the bag under vacuum, Fig 15.

Figure 14 – Moulds Wrapped in Breathe

Figure 15 – 3 Moulds in Oven for Curing

Once the blades were laid in the mould the bag in which they were to be cured was prepared. The bag itself was cut to size and another sheet of the breather material inserted across the base for not only the mould to rest on but also for the nozzle. If this was not added the bag itself could be pulled onto itself, disabling the ability to remove all the air from the entire bag, rendering it useles.

The bag was then sealed with a double sided rubber tape, taking extra caution to lay the bag material down with no folds or creases which may allow the entrance of air during the curing process. The functionality of the bag was tested by applying the nozzle before it entered the oven for curing, Fig 14.

The entire apparatus was then placed in the oven for 1 hour at a temperature of 100oC.

Once one section was produced the locations with four layers were 0.8mm thick once cured and cooled, and the locations with 6 layers were 1.2mm thick. This meant the second mould could be made and had a length of 262.6mm, with an altered profile of the end caps to incorporate the 0.8mmm reduction on the top half of the airfoil.

Once the two halves were removed from their moulds, excess material was removed by filing it down. The excess material refers to small flanges which were created from the sheets being laid slightly over the side of the mould and also the radii on the internal corners of the longer half which may prevent the blade mating as intended when the shorter half was inserted into place. This process had to occur above an extractor fan whilst wearing a face mask as the airborne fibres created can cause severe damage to the lungs if inhaled.

To bond the pieces to form a complete aerofoil araldite was applied to where the end surfaces meet as well as along the leading and trailing edges and the whole thing clamped together while the adhesive set, Fig 1

As the leading and trailing edges had a thickness of approximately 0.8mm and therefore a very small contact area for the adhesive to bond, a few small gaps still were visible. These would have a negative impact on the aerodynamic properties of the blades so a hardening filler was used roughly and filed down once set.

Assembly

Once all the components were ready the turbine was assembled in the machine workshop. One new auxiliary part was made from the previous assembly and that is shown in Fig 17. A piece of 5mm Aluminium was fabricated and folded, and threaded holes located to support the struts which fix the trailing edge. The previous design had inserted these struts into the nut on the central spindle. This however made disassembly difficult and the solution shown should resolve this. It also means there is more length of strut locked into not only the Aluminium but a further nut is added to increase its strength, following the recommendation of McDougall (2010, p38).

It is important that all three blades are identical in weight in order to minimise the imbalance which may occur when the turbine is rotating. As the turbine will operate at high RPMs any imbalance will have a great effect. Two of the blades weighed in at 52g and one was 53g. By re-bonding the metal end caps to the blades increased their weight slightly but meant it was possible to balance them perfectly. Once the correct configuration of blades and caps was found all three blades weighed 68g.

The central shaft also had to be turned down and threaded to allow assembly for the reduce turbine height.

Testing
Theory

The goal of the test is to measure the power output of the turbine at certain wind speeds. To do this, under a known load, the RPM of the turbine was measured so a value for the power produced could be calculated using:

Where: P = Power (W)

T = Torque (Nm)

? = Angular Velocity (rad/s)

The conversion of RPM to angular velocity is:

Knowing the amount of power produced by the turbine enables us to calculate a value for the coefficient of power under those conditions using, Paraschivoiu (2002, p320):

Where: ? = Air Density (kg/m3)

V0 = Wind Speed (m/s)

S = Blade Area (m2)

The pitch angle of the blades will be set at +5o as this is the angle for best L/D, Airfoil Investigation Databse – www.worldofkrauss.com.

Procedure

Two phases of testing took place in order to compare data to that of the previous design. Initially the turbine was exposed to the wind without any load and the wind velocity increased to the point where the turbine self started. This was then repeated with the augmenter added so that the effect on start up speed could be observed.

Then by applying various loads to the turbine at constant wind speeds, the maximum power for that wind speed can be found by plotting a graph of Power vs. ?. By repeating this at increasing wind speeds a curve of Maximum Cp vs. Wind Speed should identify a trend and possible suggestion of at what wind speed the absolute maximum power may be achieved.

When taking measurements of turbine RPM care must be taken to ensure the blades are not accelerating or decelerating. To ensure this the value on the Tachometer must remain constant for 20 revolutions or 30 seconds, whichever is greater.

To apply the load the test rig was assembled with a rope wrapped around the shaft of the turbine. On one end was a mass hanger, supported by a pulley and the other end was fixed to the supporting framework. By the end with masses a torque is applied to the shaft by way of friction from the rope. Using the following equations the torque being applied, and therefore the working torque of the turbine, can be calculated.

Where: T1 = Resultant resistance (N)

T2 = Tension (N)

? = Coefficient of friction

? = Angle of contact on shaft (rad)

The angle of contact on the shaft was set at 180o, which is ensured by maintaining the two lengths of tether were exactly parallel to each other, Fig 18. The coefficient of friction, ?, was found by experiment to be 0.917.

The resistance being applied to the shaft, found by resolving T1, can then be converted to an effective applied torque using the equation:

Where: T = Torque (Nm)

F = Force applied (N)

d = Shaft radius (m)

The power of the turbine under each condition can then be calculated using the equation below:

Where: P = Power (W)

T = Torque (Nm)

? = Angular Velocity (rad/s)

The graph of Torque vs. ? should be a linear function due to this equation. From this data a graph of Power vs. ? should be a polynomial curve with a maximum value occurring between maximum torque and maximum angular velocity.

The lattice framework was stiffened to minimise vibration and flutter effects when it was in operation. To do this it was first raised off from the relatively loose metal beams running parallel to the tunnel and rested on large masses. It was also weighed down by heavy objects from the wind tunnel lab, Fig 19.

Figure 19 – Lattice Framework Stiffening

The upper framework still felt unstable so it was G-clamped on both sides to the wind tunnel opening using surplus beams from the wind tunnel lab, Fig 20. These measures ensured there was minimal vibration caused by the framework itself being deflected in the wind.

Figure 20 – Lattice Framework Supports

The procedure was then repeated with the augmenter in place. The top section of the framework was removed as a whole, Fig 21 and the augmenter lifted over the top of the turbine. This allowed the turbine to remain in position and minimise any variables that might be affected. To secure the augmenter, an M10 thread was made in the lattice members so a long bolt could be screwed in. On the other side of the bracket a nut and washer were secured, Fig 22, to ensure no slippage of the augmenter which may lead to collision with the blades. This was identical at 4 locations on both top and bottom of the augmenter.

Results

The start up speed of the turbine without the augmenter was 4.8m/s and with the addition of the augmenter it was reduced to 1.1m/s.

Initially the turbine was run with no loading.

When the turbine was rotating at low wind speeds without the augmenter it did not acquire true lift and remained at a low RPM. It was not until the wind speed was raised to around 5m/s that the turbine would accelerate to a significant RPM. When the augmenter was added the turbine RPM at lower speeds was proportional to those at higher wind speeds. The results of increasing the wind velocity on RPM of the turbine are shown in Fig 23.

Figure 23 – Graph of Wind Speed vs. RPM

The wind speed at which the turbine would accelerate into lift appears to be correlated to the start up speed. When no load was applied and the turbine was in lift the relative RPMs with and without the augmenter are almost identical. It was also observed that the turbine acceleration would sharply increase once it had reached 150-165RPM.

The addition of the augmenter therefore also had a significant effect on maintaining a constant tip speed ratio at lower wind speeds because of this – displayed in Fig 24

Figure 24 – Graph of Wind Speed vs. Tip Speed Ratio

Loads were then applied at a wind speed where the turbine was in lift. The torque applied was proportional to the reduction in RPM for both cases, which was expected

Figure 25 – Graph of Torque vs. RPM without Augmenter

Figure 26 – Graph of Torque vs. RPM with Augmenter

The gradient of the trend lines serve as a good indication of the reliability of the results. All are relatively parallel, in both cases, except for at 8m/s with no augmenter. The trend line gradient exceeds that of the data at 9m/s which suggests the values found are too high. This would have been caused by anomalies or errors in the execution of the experiment. Looking at the trend line gradients for all speeds without the augmenter suggests the behaviour of the turbine is less predictable than when the augmenter is added.

Higher loads were applied than the data points shown although the turbine decelerated to zero in these cases and so has been omitted for the purpose of analysis. The complete data set can be found in Appendix 1.

Analysis

From the raw data displayed in the previous graphs, the power of the turbine could be calculated. The graph of turbine power is shown below for each case with (Fig 28) and without (Fig 27) the augmenter.

Figure 27 – Graph of Power vs. ? without Augmenter

Figure 28 – Graph of Power vs. ? with Augmenter

Polynomial trend lines have been added to predict the entire curve based on the data found. The peak of these curves indicates the optimum power and corresponding angular velocity for the investigated wind speeds. These figures were read off the graphs and then plotted as a series to compare the augmenter effect on maximum power at different wind speeds, see Fig 29.

Figure 29 – Graph of Max Power vs. Wind Speed

The augmenter appears to increase the power of the turbine at all wind speeds. The data from testing the turbine without the augmenter at 8m/s has been shown to be higher than is realistic. If this were to be repeated the maximum power at 8m/s could be expected to be around 0.8W in this configuration.

Evaluation and Discussion

There are several elements of the turbine assembly which can be improved to increase the efficiency and therefore the power output of the design.

Blades

The blades were a novel design and as a result were subject to imperfections because they are essentially the first article.

The surface of the blades after they had been cured had a very slightly rough texture. This will increase the skin friction drag when the turbine is in motion. Also there was remains of the adhesive from the tape which acted as a barrier between the piece and the mould. It was not possible to remove this although several methods were used. Thinners, ethanol and a heat gun were all used to no effect.

The process of filling the gaps post-bonding of the two halves also could have been improved as the trailing edge was not as thin as possible. This will induce extra drag as the air struggles to reform in the stream as the airfoil travels.

There was also audible rattling of auxiliary structure in the region of 550-600rpm. After examination this was found to be due to the screws inserted into the threaded holes on the blade ends. It was found that on one of the blades, the screw attaching the bracket closest to the leading edge was not locking when screwed up fully. This meant it was slightly loose and the bracket itself was vibrating. The turbine was run up to 800rpm in this state so there was no fear of failure yet it is not a desirable situation. The cause is down to the weak nature of the thread inside the composite. For future designs, a rawl plug or socket to support the screw.

Another source of inefficiency was the drag caused by strut members securing the blade pitch angle. If possible a design should be developed to secure the blades at the correct angle without these members.

Yet more inefficiency would have been caused by the spindle arm pieces which connect the blades to the shaft. From a previous experiment where the turbine failed and general wear and tear from others have left these pieces scuffed. At the extreme ends of these there are extension pieces to increase the turbine diameter. The mating of the two has left gaps which will trap air when it is rotating. Both of these factors will also increase the drag unnecessarily.

The augmenter was not altered in order to complete the project on time. The preferred option would be to shorten it down to leave approximately 10% of the blade height distance between the edge of the blade and the upper and lower cowling. Also the upper and lower rim itself would be at best effect at 30o to the incoming wind; it presently sits at around 10o. This would be a useful update for future investigations.

The testing procedure is open to scrutiny. The absolute value for power output is dependent on the coefficient of friction used between the tether and the shaft. The method for deducing this was to fix the turbine blades and place a mass hanger on two pulleys at either end of the tether. Imbalanced masses were added to the hangers and the rate of acceleration that the heavier one fell was calculated. Knowing the acceleration, a difference between that figure and 9.81m/s 2 of gravity was assumed to be caused by the friction applied at the shaft. This resistive force was converted to a friction coefficient for the materials. The timing of the falling masses was repeated 10 times and all values were in a range of 0.2 seconds. The value of 0.917 however seems high and errors may have occurred in either the timing or the height at which the masses were dropped.

This doesn’t mean the results are worthless though. As long as the same materials and hence coefficient of friction is used, which it was, then the varying results for different conditions are still valid if only as a comparison and therefore the aim of finding optimum conditions is still achieved.

A further alteration which would of much improvement to the investigation is the material used for this tether. At high applied loads then the tether ‘burned out’ as the turbine was at high RPMs also. This meant applying a new tether very often and possible discrepancies in the results. A better material or even better method, with greater accuracy would enable the absolute results to be much more reliable.

Conclusion

The addition of the augmenter not only greatly reduces the start up speed of the turbine but improves performance, especially at low wind speeds. When there is no loading and the turbine is in lift the augmenter does not affect the RPM however with no load the turbine is not useful. It is only when a load is applied that power can be extracted. The augmenter does have a significant effect on this and allows the turbine to not only operate with a higher power output but also appears to give greater predictability as a result of directing the airflow.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made to improve the investigation in the future:

References

Gipe, Paul (1995) Wind Energy Comes of Age, John Wiley & Sons Inc, Canada

Davis, Ben (2009) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Blades for Urban Environments, Unpublished MEng Dissertation, Kingston University, London

Perera, Kapuruge (2009) Analysis and Development of a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, Unpublished Final Year Individual Project Report, Kingston University, London

Bhatt, Hardik (2009) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, Unpublished Final Year Individual Project Report, Kingston University, London

McDougall, Max (2010) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Project, Unpublished Final Year Individual Project Report, Kingston University, London

Pathmanathan, A.V (2008) Analysis on a Vertical Axis Wind Turbine, Unpublished Final Year Individual Project Report, Kingston University, London

Gay, D & Hoa, Suong. V (2007) Composite Materials Design and Applications – 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis Group, USA

Barbero, E.J (2011) Introduction to Composite Materials Design – 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis Group, USA

Wortman, W. J (1983) Introduction to Wind Turbine Engineering, Butterworth Publishers, USA

Paraschivoiu, I (2002) Wind Turbine Design, Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, Canada

Airfoil Investigation Database, Available at http://www.worldofkrauss.com, accessed on 8/3/2011.

Introduction

Sustainability in construction is a common issue today, ranging from sustainable design to sustainable technologies. These issues have made the United Kingdom’s Government push forward for alternative advances in various technologies and renewable energies. The government are also looking for any other strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions because the scientific evidence shows that the impacts of greenhouse gas emissions are growing rapidly in UK. Due to 47% of the national energy consumption that is used by the UK homes and domestic buildings regardless of when lighting, appliances and buildings are energy efficient as well as having zero carbon technologies are installed.

Due to the higher rate of energy consumption that homes in United Kingdom’s generate, the government came out with an idea that, all newly built homes in England and Wales should be built to zero carbon by 2016. By progressively tightening the energy efficiency building regulations by 25% in 2010; and by 44% by 2013 leading up to the zero carbon target in 2016.

Aim and Objective

The aim and objective of this project is to design a three bedroom family house that will achieve code level 6 zero carbon footprint. This can be done by using a sustainable and eco friendly materials. Research will also carried out on current zero carbon homes project and also looking into the past project that has already achieved code level 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Climate Change

The word of climate change is one of the biggest threats to the global environment especially to the developed country like UK. It needs an urgent and radical response if we want to secure and enhanced our prosperity and quality of life. The uses of fossil fuel (oil, coal and gas) for energy and transport has already damage our climate and as a result of this, the climate change is already having impact on our live and is expected to destroy the live hoods of many people in the developing world as well as ecosystem and species, The research carried out shows that greenhouse gasses is the main contributors to the climate change and the government are committed to reduce the production of greenhouse gasses particular on carbon dioxide. In November 2008, the climate change act became law this is because the government want to reduce carbon dioxide emission CO2 by a minimum of 26% by the year 2020 with a long time goal of 80% reduction by 2050.

The scientific evidence shows that 47% of carbon dioxide emission CO2 in the UK come from the energy used in our house and other domestic building e.g. hospital, school and offices. In other to eliminate carbon emissions from the built environment by 2050, we need to start making our building as energy efficient as possible and using on site renewable energy, community scale renewable and decarbonisation of the grid. The UK government has done a lot in other to achieve the commitment of the climate change Act by introducing mandatory energy performance certificate for sale and purchase of new and existing homes, The government banned incandescent light bulbs in favour of energy saving light bulb, introducing the climate change level where businesses must pay additional tax on their use that is non renewable energy and by passing energy act 2008 which introduce measure such as the feed in tariff, smart metering, renewable heat incentive and carbon capture & storage. The government even went as far as introducing the renewable obligation whereby all electricity suppliers must provide 10% of the electricity they sell from renewable sources.

The issue of the climate change is behind why we arrived on the sustainable development.

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development has become generally accepted as planning goals in UK, which was defined by Department of the Environment Transport and the Regions London (2000) as;

“The simple initiative of ensuring a better quality of life for everyone, now and for generations to come”

The intention of the definitions is to achieve social, economic and environmental objectives and at the same time given us more inclusive society by which the benefit of increased economic prosperity are widely shared, with less pollution and more efficient use of natural resources.

The key objective of achieving the sustainable development is as follow;

The sensible use of natural resources
The effective protection of the environment
Maintaining high levels of economic growth and employment
Social progress that recognises the needs of everyone

The sustainable development is a serious matter because need for growth is becoming huge as ever especially in a developing world. At this point of time, the environments are struggling to cope with the current levels of consumptions, e.g. Energy Consumption which is having huge impact on the climate change. The government has to come out with a new way of meeting people’s need, prospect and aspiration to ensure that our economy, society and environment grow and develop in harmony. We should also know that, the design and construction of a building play major role in contributing to the sustainable development. The issues of sustainable development lead us to the sustainable design which concentrates on how individual or groups of building complies with the objective of sustainable development. This is by ensuring that the sustainable designs are;

The construction of buildings should minimises the amount of resources they use, including energy, waste and pollution
The materials used for construction should be environmentally and eco friendly
The existing built fabric should be re-used as far as possible
Buildings are energy efficient

The issue of sustainable design usually focus on long term benefit rather than short term saving reason is that, sustainable building will cost less to build and has smaller impact on the environment in terms of natural resources that are used during the construction.

Literature Review

Scope of the Chapter

This chapter explains what zero carbon homes is also the sustainable principle and sustainable codes. All relevant building regulations especially Part L 2006 will be looking at in other to accomplish the aim of the project. Analysing case study on the previous project that already achieved code level 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6

Conclusion

Research will be on case studies, materials and design of past projects will be discussed and at a later date incorporated it into proposed three bedrooms family house.

The discussion on how the building will achieve code level 6 will on be considered in the chapter and the consumption of energy that the house use will also be detailed.

Abstract:

Complex parametric models may consist of many interrelated cost estimating relationships (CERs), as well as other equations, ground rules, assumptions, and variables that describe and define the situation being studied. Models generate estimates based upon certain input parameters, or cost drivers. Parametric models can generally be classified as commercial or company-developed. This review provides practical information about developing, deploying, and maintaining company-developed parametric models. Company-developed models – also referred to as company-owned, in-house, or proprietary models – differ from cost estimating relationships (CERs) because of their higher level of complexity, and the range of costs they estimate. Commercial parametric estimating models, available in the public domain, use generic algorithms and estimating methods which are based on a database that contains a broad spectrum of industry-wide data. Unlike commercial models, company-developed models are designed for the specific estimating needs of an organization or to describe a particular product. A proprietary model offers an alternative to trying to use a commercial model to meet an organization’s unique estimating requirements.

JEL classification: C50, C51

Key words: equation, parameter, parametric model, commercial model, proprietary model

1. Introduction

A parametric cost model can be viewed as the collection of databases, cost estimating relationships (CERs) [1], cost factors and algorithms, which together are used to estimate the costs of a system and its components. A parametric cost model uses known values to estimate unknown ones. Industry use parametric models to support conceptual estimating, design-to-cost analyses, life-cycle cost estimates, risk analyses, budget planning and analyses. Parametric models can also be used as the basis of a cost estimate in preparation of firm business proposals, or in the independent assessment of cost estimates prepared using a traditional estimating approach.

Models generate estimates based upon certain input parameters, or cost drivers. Parameters “drive the cost” of the end product or service being estimated. Some examples are weight, size, efficiency, quantity, and time. Some models can develop estimates with only a limited set of descriptive program inputs; others, however, require the user to provide many detailed input values before the model can compute a total cost estimate. A model can utilize a mix of estimating methods, and it may allow as inputs estimates from other pricing models (or information systems) or quotes from external sources, such as subcontracts.

Several companies implemented commercial parametric estimating hardware models, which can rapidly compute development and design costs, manufacturing costs of prototypes, and production unit/manufacturing support costs.

Commercial parametric estimating models use generic algorithms and estimating methods which are based on a database that contains a broad spectrum of industry-wide data. Because this data encompasses many different products, a company working with a commercial parametric model must calibrate it before using it as a base of estimate for proposals submitted to the higher-tier contractors. Calibration tailors the commercial model so it reflects the products, estimating environment, and business culture of that particular company.

A proprietary model offers an alternative to trying to use a commercial model to meet an organization’s unique estimating requirements. Proprietary models are developed for an organization’s own product and cost estimating needs and are, in effect, self-calibrated.

Proprietary models can be implemented for a variety of estimating purposes, and have a wide range of complexity, completeness, and application.

2. The Proprietary Model Development Process

The major activities involved in developing a proprietary model are:

Step 1: Identifying the Parametric Model Opportunity

One of the most critical steps in the proprietary model development process is the identification of a good opportunity for implementing a parametric model. This involves two points. First, it is important to investigate the feasibility of developing the model, which entails an evaluation of both its technical feasibility and cost effectiveness. Technical feasibility refers to the ability of the model to meet the estimating needs of the organization, and examines whether the organization has the resources to develop the model within a reasonable timeframe. This includes performing a cost-benefit analysis to decide whether a proprietary model would be cost-effective to implement and maintain. All potential benefits should be considered in the cost-benefit analysis; for example, contractors have achieved significant savings in proposal preparation, evaluation, and negotiation through the implementation of proprietary parametric estimating models. Other contractors have achieved additional benefits through multiple applications of the same model, such as for design studies, target costing, and contract risk management as well as basic estimating.

The second critical point involves gaining the support of internal upper-level (including program) management and key customer management. If the model then meets the acceptance criteria provided by these groups, they agree to support its proper application in subsequent proposals. Little good comes from implementing a proprietary model if there is no internal management buy-in, or no support from the key customers on the estimating technique. Also, the firm’s management will want to understand the results of the feasibility study so it can properly assess the financial investment required to support model development and on-going maintenance activities, such as training, model enhancements, and software corrections. On receiving approval to begin development from internal and external management, the contractor establishes an implementation team to guide the creation of a valid proprietary model. This team should include representatives from the company and key customers.

Step 2: Information Systems Needs

When implementing a proprietary model, the organization should commit and obtain the necessary resources for information systems development and support activities. Information systems support is required for a variety of functions:

– defining the formal system requirements needed to support the cost estimating model (e.g., hardware, software, interfaces with other systems);

– testing the model to ensure it adequately satisfies all end-user requirements;

– maintaining the integrity of the model throughout its life span by establishing procedures to manage and control all changes (i.e., configuration management);

– providing software support services once the model is deployed to keep it operational (e.g., corrections, revisions, miscellaneous enhancements).

When simpler models are implemented (e.g., spreadsheet models), the degree of support is smaller, but the configuration management and long-term maintenance issues still must be addressed.

Step 3: Data Collection and Analysis

Historical costs should be used, with the development team ensuring that they are relevant to the firm’s current operating procedures.

In an effort to include as much relevant cost data as possible, analysts normalize it as it is incorporated into the database [2]. They adjust data so it is as homogeneous as possible (e.g., similar in content, time value of money, quantity), and does not contain anomalies. Programmatic, noncost data may also require normalization. The analyst must assess the condition of each program’s data and make appropriate adjustments as required.

When developing a model, the team identifies the main characteristics, called the primary cost drivers, that are responsible for, and have the greatest impact on, the product or services cost to be estimated.

Step 4: Model Development

The development of a proprietary model incorporates many anticipated uses and goals – such as estimating/users’ requirements, availability of credible data, life-cycle costs, systems engineering costs, forward pricing rates – and it must integrate these into the parametric estimating approach. The modeling process, in particular, focuses on these tasks:

– specifying the estimating methods for accomplishing the estimating goals;

-identifying the job functions and other elements of cost that will be estimated;

– defining data input structures;

Proprietary models may contain a number of different estimating techniques.

Step 5: Calibration and Validation

Parametric models are calibrated and validated before they are used to develop estimates for proposals. Since proprietary models are based on an organization’s historical data, they are considered to be self-calibrated.

Validation is the process, or act, of demonstrating the proprietary model’s ability to function as a credible estimating tool [3]. Validation ensures:

– estimating system policies and procedures are established and enforced;

– key personnel have proper experience and are adequately trained;

– proper information system controls are established to monitor system development and maintenance activities in order to ensure the model’s continued integrity;

– the model is a good predictor of costs.

Models should be validated and periodically updated to ensure they are based on current, accurate, and complete data, and that they remain good cost predictors.

The purpose of validation is the demonstration of a model’s ability to reliably predict costs. This can be done in a number of ways. For example, if a company has sufficient historical data, data points can be withheld from the model building process and then used as test points to assess the model’s estimating accuracy. Unfortunately, data sets available are often extremely small, and withholding a few points from the model’s development may affect the precision of its parameters. This trade-off between accuracy and testability is an issue model developers always consider.

When sufficient historical data are not available for testing, accuracy assessments can be performed using other techniques.

Another testing methodology compares a commercial program’s final cost to the proprietary model’s estimate of it. However, it may be months, or years, before this approach can be applied to a given program. The model team may use this method when a program is near completion, or is at a point where a meaningful earned value performance index for it can be determined.

Step 6: Estimating System Policies and Procedures

After validation, the company must modify its estimating system policies and procedures to explain the appropriate use and application of the model for reviewers and company users. In particular, the model’s developers need to document its proper use as a valid bidding tool.

Companies should also explain the model’s design, development, and use. For example, the contractor, as part of its support for the follow-on production model and estimating tool, developed a detailed manual containing information about the mechanics of the model, its estimating methodologies, and the timing of updates. The company also amended its Estimating System Manual to include a section on the model, and to refer the reader to the model’s own manual.

Step 7: Internal Approval Process

Model developers need to assure company representatives that the model relies on the firm’s historical data and, therefore, captures how the company executed similar projects in the past. Any departmental budget allocations produced by the model should reflect the average budgetary split the firm has historically experienced. Developers should also consider the fact that a model, if approved, might change the way the company anticipates executing an existing (or planned) program (e.g., the project director may need to shift work and modify the budget). This obviously affects the circumstances under which other company personnel would approve the model.

A best practice from contractor experience involves the integration of the company representatives into the model implementation team. As an example, when implementing the follow-on production model, the model designers, from the beginning, solicited the participation of key internal representatives. During the development of each module, the team incorporated the inputs of the functional department primarily responsible for executing that portion of the project which the module was designed to estimate. Although the Finance Department led the model building effort, it continuously reviewed its progress with representatives from the Engineering and Manufacturing Departments. These representatives were responsible for coordinating and obtaining any necessary information from their organization, and keeping management informed.

Step 8: External Approval Process

Although a company may internally approve a model, the customer must also be shown that the estimating approach is valid. The involving of customers in up-front decision facilitates their acceptance of parametric techniques.

In seeking acceptance of a proprietary model, the company formed a Continuous Improvement Process (CIP) team [4]. The team’s composition included company representatives from various departments. All team members participated in establishing selection criteria for the model’s database. Based on the selection criteria, the contractor personnel collected actual cost data from many contracts. When using the model for the first time with a buying organization, the CIP team invites the buying organization to the company for a joint review and explanation of the model.

Immediately after obtaining funding to develop the model, the developing company discussed it with other contractors, additional government organizations, to ensure widespread support in data collection and model validation.

Including customers on the development team does not guarantee a model’s acceptance, of course. It does ensure that the customer has a voice in the model’s design and usage, but the model’s ability to reasonably predict costs is the ultimate basis for acceptance. No person, internal or external to the company, can prove this before final development and testing.

Step 9: Model Maintenance

Through the development process, the team develops a sense of how often the model needs updating. Maintenance activities include not only the incorporation of new data into the model, but also an evaluation of the mathematical relationships between the technical parameters and the costs the model estimates. Periodic evaluation of the model is required to ensure the estimates are relevant and the contractor is using the most current, accurate, and complete data.

New data is contributed as programs mature and, occasionally, from non-company sources. In some situations, the cost modelers develop new CERs, based on a subset of the original database, in order to better match a new estimating requirement.

The process of maintaining a model involves keeping an audit trail of the CERs developed, the data points used, and their statistical effectiveness.

3. Conclusions

Company-developed parametric models – also known as proprietary models offers an alternative to use a commercial model regarding organization’s own product and cost estimating needs.

No company or individual can develop a valid model without the participation of a number of key people which include the customers, all interested company personnel, and government representatives.

Some concepts should be considered by all implementation teams as follows:

– establish a process flow and target development dates to ensure all team members provide their inputs to the model’s design;

– consider the costs and benefits of model development;

– evaluate commercial models as an alternative to proprietary development;

– remember that the goal is to establish a more efficient and reliable estimating system, not just create a model.

References
Stuparu D., Vasile T., Stanciu M.

The Cost Estimating Relationships (CER’s) – modern method for predicting cost, Revista Academiei Fortelor Terestre, nr. 1/2010.
Vasile T., Stuparu D., Daniasa C.I.

Collection and Normalization of Parametric Data, Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Tom XVIII, vol. II, 2009, pp. 703-708.
Stewart R.D., Wyskida R.M., Johannes J.D.

Cost Estimator’s Reference Manual, 2nd Edition, New York, Wiley, 1995, pp. 57-67.
* * *http://www.ceh.nasa.gov/webhelpfiles/Cost_Estimating_Handbook_NASA_2004.htm

Introduction

My report would focus on personal evidence that’s been gathered from my placement at Notre Dame RC Girls’ School. It would explore the grounds as to why extra-curricular activities are a contributing factor to the educational development of a child. Using empirical data gathered from my placement and theoretical theory, the report will outline and analyse factors that are plausible to the above question. This report would also show the evidence that have been analysed by theories on the impact of how education institution is interlinked with the needs of society. My reports focal point is to draw upon activities executed to improve the learning and development of pupils. My findings are focused on in school activities not going into the broader allotment of independent providers that run youth services and schemes.

In my report the children are referred to as” pupils” this is not a personal preference but because it is used to refer to children within the secondary school and primary school segment. The term, Extra-curricular is a conventional name used to mean, added support to the curriculum that may take place before or after school. However, many now refer to it as” study support” or out of school hours. Throughout this report I have used several of the phrases to cover the whole spectrum of activities within the school.

What are extracurricular activities and Curriculum Enriched activities

After school activities can fall into two exact categories, homework club, outdoor activities, creative clubs and varying from to school breakfast clubs. We then place these clubs into definite categorisations. Extracurricular activities and curriculum enriched activities. What is the difference between the twoExtracurricular activities: are like study support groups for example: homework club, reading club, science club, Maths and drama clubs etc. These clubs are positioned to allow extra time for detailed study and to give a helping hand to students who need aid with their work and study. Lessons are conducted in a fun manner so that pupils would not feel like they are not in school hours. Whereas, curriculum enriched activities are not there to help withacademic but to give them an opportunity to improve their skills and practice. These activities sometimes take place external places to help with their physical, poignant and communal skills.

There are many arrays of activities that pupils can utilise: dance class, drama clubs also fall into this category as well, singing lessons, athletics club, debating clubs, and arts and crafts etc. The vast spectrum of activities it enables pupils to enhance there people skills, working skills which later in life can prepare them for the workforce. Drawing upon sociological perspective theories, such as the work of E. Durkheim, functionalist theory argues that “The carefully constructed curriculum helps students develop their identities and self-esteem. universal education serves the needs of society, conveying basic knowledge and skills to the next generation” (cliffsnotes.com)

Which pupils are likely to attend these activities

Research as shown those pupils whom are likely to participate in after school activities are according to Barker et al: 2003 are pupils with educational needs their study suggests that these children with special educational needs (SEN) would benefit more because they would have the opportunity to be amongst other children who are ahead and there they can share skills. Their research in addition states that children who live in deprived areas are the ones also more likely to benefit from the after school hours for the reason that few children from poorer families are not privileged have access to modern equipments at home. Therefore the services provide by the school after hours would give them access to available resources. Alan Dyson from the University of Manchester from his study of extended schools suggests that “In particular, the study found that extended schools were most beneficial for pupils from the most disadvantaged backgrounds, providing stability and helping to improve their chances of learning.” (Alan Dyson, bbc.co.uk)

The logic behind these activities is so that pupils who are under achieving are able to get the one on one attention that is needed to help them. They are also open to students who show exceptional skills in their studies and are able to develop ahead of their peers. The pupils who fall into this category are called the gifted and talented, the gifted are pupils who are working beyond their peers in academic subjects and the talented are those who have practical skills in other fields for example sports and art. Extracurricular activities help students become more collaborative, more complex thinkers. Nevertheless, not all students effectively benefit from the system equally. The work of Everson, T. & Millsap, R. (2005) demonstrated that the level of benefit of extracurricular activities varies depending on the student’s background. Students from underprivileged background gain more benefits from the service that extracurricular activities’ provide than students from privileged background. Privileged student are socialised into a specific type of upbringing that enables them to gain culture capital, whereas, student from deprived background don’t have access to such facilities other than the ones offered at school. Consequently, kids from deprived background don’t gain the full benefit of their selected area of interest.

Before going away on my placement and finding out the materials that were needed to conduct this report. Many people would associate after school clubs with “geeks” and “teachers pets” as they were referred to in schools. However, that has not been the case, reflecting upon my placement the above studies to some extent has been proven in my time spent at homework club. Many of the girls who attend this club are partly there to use the resources i.e. the computers and books. After a constructive conversation with one of the girls that regularly attended the homework club, she told me the reason for her continuous attendance. She said to me is because she did not own a computer at home, this derived from me asking her to go home and continue with her work when homework club was finished because of the little time she had. Moreover, Pupils also likely to attend these clubs are sometimes students who have working parents and or other siblings. For example, in drama club I came across two sisters whom where in different years but both attended the club. The reason for the younger sibling attending the club was to wait for the older sibling so that they could go home together after the club, to meet their parents’ home from work. There are many reasons why many kids attend after school activities but the most common reasons are those that are mentioned above. Also with my experience, the clubs also usually get an influx of pupils who are attending to revise and prepare for exams e.g. I had the privilege of working with some year 11’s for their exam preparation after school in drama club. We worked on “The Crucible” play by Arthur Miller. As an overall judgment it is right to say that all pupils benefit from attending these clubs bearing in mind that they are optional to the pupil and those who would need it the most may not attend.

Who runs these clubs?

Out of school hours activities are controlled by the teachers of the school and are supported by educational bodies. Many teachers give up their extra time to facilitate these clubs. With the presence of the school teacher some clubs are run by practitioners or professionals who are employed to conduct these sessions after school. Drawing on my placement for example Drama club, which is run by a company called ACTive-8 their “workshops are run by experienced professional actors, dancers and singers who are keen to share their quest for excellence, experience of drama school training and current knowledge of the entertainment industry”. (Activ-8.net). despite the fact that some teachers put in their extra time to deliver after hours activities as charitable, it retrospectively gives back to them. “The extended school approach was believed to enable teachers to become more involved in a wider range of activities in the school and community, working alongside other professionals and community members. Opportunities for training and professional development were also enhanced through this approach. Morale could also increase as a result of direct involvement in the additional activities taking place in the school or through the general ethos and atmosphere generated through this approach.” (Barker et al: 2003, pg 7)

Benefits of the extracurricular activities

From my discovery with working both after school and during school, it became apparent from my observations and discussions with some of the girls at homework club and drama club, that extracurricular activity, provides confidence and a sense of achievement amongst students that have attended these sessions. Here are a number of the benefits of attending these clubs:

Interaction Skills: is a vital skill which is later on useful in life, it helps pupils with interaction skills which then helps them to make new friends and in some case helps them not get bullied in school by their peers. It prepares them for employment and people skills.
Contributing in class:this as been evident in my findings, for the reason that many of the girls in drama club contribute their ideas to create their performance. Whilst in class I noticed that those same girls are the ones answering questions even though they may not be right at times but because of the confidence they are gaining through clubs they are then able to transfer that in class. This helps them across all subject areas to improve their understanding of the subjects better.
Commitments: commitment is essential for discipline as this would come versatile for exams, especially for the older girls it is a good practice for when they have left school to further their education. Drama club is a really good example of commitment every week the girls would attend rehearsals and contribute to the class. The club also created a code of conduct that all pupils signed and one of the rule was to be committed to the club unless for emergency reasons. Here they are learning responsibility and taking ownership of their work.
Applications: after school clubs are a great thing to put on college application forms because it shows that a pupil have contributed and committed themselves after school hours. I have actually experienced this when I helped a student fill in an application form for college and it just goes to show how good it looks. Moreover, it also tells you a lot about the personality of that pupil and their ability to be diverse in their education.

Language

Language is an important part of our society today. After school language clubs are created so that children have that extra time to practise and develop their skill. Notre Dame in particular is one of the specilaist school for foreign languages. Having this facuality means they have an advantage to make sure that their pupils achieve good grades in foreign langauages.2010 results show that there were 158 girls entered for GCSE in foreign languages and on average 90% achieve A* – C. ( collected this informaation on the Notre Dame website, on results page) this result was achieved I was told by the deputy headteacher because many of the girls attended 4 or more sessions after school language clubs.

The learning of a foreign language for example, at an early age has several positive effects on a child’s development than that of an adult or a child at secondary school level. Learning a foreign language at an early age has a positive effect on intellectual growth; it gives a student a head start in language requirements for college and increase job opportunities in many careers where knowing another language is a real asset. A student from a privileged background is more likely to start learning foreign language at an early age because their parents are more likely to be in a better financial position. Effectively they will gain more in comparison to a student who picked up foreign language at the beginning or middle of their secondary school education. Nevertheless, both students will effectively gain from their participation in extracurricular activities. But it’s crucial to point out that other factors such as the background of the student can affect the how each child benefit from the service provided. Bernstein, B (1971) famous theory on language looks at the process of linguistic improvement by analysing the difference between two types of language code. Elaborated code is usually associated with formal setting. In his case study the child that used the elaborated code, illustrated clarity by giving full account of the situation, where as the boy who used the restricted code was limited with his use of language. Restricted code has static meaning, whereas elaborated code is interlinked with shared meaning and background and it enables the expression of values.

Extra curricular activities are usually inspired from specific cultural and its aim is to develop interest or learn skills within a specific area. Its importance are only recognised and appreciated by those who are aware of its culture. Private school for example, place a big emphasizes on certain type of extra curricular activities such the learning of a foreign language. Simply because it’s believed that the learning of a foreign language develops the child social and culture skill thus the process of learning the language will lay the foundation for the student to be socially and culturally mobile. Atherton (2002).

Extra curricular activates such as art and craft and learning of foreign language develop the child’s cultural capital, by proving education beyond the national curriculum. The importance of cultural capital is that it provided student with the social values of the capitalist, it’s interlined with shared meaning and background and provides understanding to institutional jargon and socialising agencies

This is an advantage for later occupational position in the life of the student because alongside qualification and experience certain prestige companies only employ candidates who have cultural capital and have experience with area. For example a requirement can be, having the ability to speak a foreign language or being able to play a specific type of sport.

It’s likely that a student from a private school is more likely to have such skills because it was part of their school’s culture. Whereas, a child from a mainstream school only gained that knowledge from participating in extracurricular activates.

Those it can be argued that the process of extracurricular activates is not just about developing the child’s academic development but also developing them socially by exposing and teaching them social values that enables them to share meaning and background of the capitalist. Lastly it can develop their linguistic skills, which will effectively alter their communication level with their teacher. Robin Nash(“Keeping In With Teacher”) has argued that teachers and pupils interact in the classroom in ways that draw implicitly on concepts of cultural capital (teacher-perceptions of family background being particularly important, for example).

Self esteem

Self esteem defers from one man to the next. Everyone’s esteem if built by the experiences the face in life. So when asked to define this term is really tricky to get a precise answer. According to Lawrence (2006). “self esteem is the individual’s evaluation of the discrepancy between self image and the ideal self.” He goes on to say that “that the discrepancy between the two is inevitable and so can be regarded as a normal phenomenon.”(Chap 3, pg 5) self esteem is a feeling of worth and assurance. The ideal self are visions created by a person about themselves, in a case of a child, being praised for good behaviour and given positive feedback continuously is going to make them believe in themselves which motivates them to achieve more.

This is far the most beneficial gain in extracurricular activities. With its merit itcan be transferred in all parts of life. It is a life long gift that is forever with that pupil. I really saw this put into practise in the drama club when they did their performance to their parents and peers. Because of the belief that was passed on to them that they could do it and the positive praises the end result meant that they all felt overwhelmed and some actually came to me and told me that next term they wanted to do it all over again. Another example is in homework club particularly when a pupil has spent their time to do their homework and get a really good feedback from their teacher; it gives them the urge to want to get those same feedbacks all the time. Over half of the staff that I came across during my time at Notre Dame stated that after school clubs do really contribute to a child confidence and community skills.

Improving exams and results

Studies have shown that after school activities contribute immensely to the drive and self esteem of the pupil, another great factor of after hour’s activities is that it has proven to have contributed to attainment results. Macbeth et al (2001) study of the impact of study support took a sample of8,000 pupils in 52 schools across the UK their aim was to come to a conclusion that pupils who partake in after school curriculum activities accomplished better grades than they were expected.

Their study also showed that on average the result of partaking in out of school hour’s made an on the whole increase of three and- a-half grades at GCSE level and in Key Stage 3, partaking in after school activities enhanced math’s attainment by half a level and science by three quarters of a level. These statistics clearly show that the repercussions are not only showing through the behavior of the pupil but also through their academic work.

My subjective observing from doing five full days for couple of weeks showed that breakfast clubs is also a contributing factor to academic achievement. Except, for it being the most important meal of the day, it has in fact revealed that the pupils would leave their house early to just make it in time in the morning to get breakfast if they haven’t already done so at home. This has also contributed to attendance and punctuality of those particular girls which would develop their concentration level in class. Shemilt, I., et al (2004) A national evaluation of school breakfast clubs showed a mix in results. From the research it proves that breakfast those facilitate with the concentration level of the pupils and rate of truancy. However, the findings also showed that the pupils he observed had a frequency bad behavior. There may be other factors that may have triggered their bad behavior or something went wrong somewhere by the pupils he observed, in my observation from what I experienced in the school that wasn’t the case. I have personally worked with the girls in class and after school and did not find any behavior problems.

Crime and antisocial behaviour

Research have revealed that children who partake in after school hour clubs are not liable to get involved in any violent activities after school or get involved in antisocial behavioural activities. It is proven that children who have nothing to do after school and who’s parent may still be at work sometimes often find themselves in gang related activities and are highly likely to commit offences. Whereas after school clubs are a way of keeping kids busy and out of the street. From discussions with the girls that I have been working with, it was concluded that some of their friends who got themselves involved in after school fights never attended after school clubs because it was seen as a waste of time. This meant that they landed into the hands of trouble even if it was not intentional and many of them were in the wrong place at the wrong time. Not suggesting necessarily that after hours activities would entirely keep a pupil out of trouble, however, it would teach them about social skills which would mean that they are less possible to get into antisocial activities. Durlak, J. & Weissberg R. (2007). Chicago, IL: research on, The Impact of After-School Programs that Promote Personal and Social Skills, found that children whostay after school and are supervised boost their academic, social, personal and recreational development. Their research looked at three areas school performance, behavioural adjustment, feelings and attitude through these findings they concluded that children who go home and are not supervised are at risk for under achievement and behavioural problems.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the benefits of extracurricular goes beyond the process of secondary school, but rather enables student to gain knowledge and develop skills that allow individual’s to gain knowledge to specific arrears which inevitably shapes their further development. The report has outlined the benefits extracurricular activities have on a student social, emotional, and intellectual development. Several studies conducted have proven that there are factors that contribute to development. The urge of wanting to find out how extra- curricular activities contributed to a Childs development has open doors to many studies and theories. My experience at Notre Dame has allowed me to acknowledge that after school activities contribute a great deal to aspects of a Childs progress. The skills then learnt are transferable into society. It can be argued that the participation of extracurricular activates can effectively develop the overall educational experience of a child development.

Extracurricular activities’ purposely seek to enhance student overall educational experience by exploring new areas or by developing further skills in an area of interest. Students effectively benefits from it via establishing friendship outside the classroom with their peers. Their relationship with teachers can also develop outside the classroom environment which can enhance classroom communication. It is agreed that for every good there is bad. Opposition theories may argue that not every factor may have been taken into consideration for example many schools now ask parents to contribute fees for their children to partake in activities.Where does that leave the children who’s parents cannot afford for them to attended these seesions, it’s crucial to point out that these benefits are influenced by a number of factors such as race, sex and social class. Thus the level of benefit varies on each child personal circumstance.

Introduction

Golf is one of the most popular sports played throughout the world and is played at all levels, form beginner to advanced pro levels. One of the great things about golf is that you can compete against anybody of any levels as long as you have a handicap. Over recent years, since Tiger Woods came on to the scene, golf has seen more of a scientific approach with most pros and even elite amateurs implementing fitness programmes into their daily routine in order to improve their performance on the course.

Burden et al. (1998) states that in order to optimise powerful rotational force that translates into the back of the ball via the club head, the athlete requires to produce a series of muscular contractions and joint movements that have to be precise in order to develop an efficient swing. The advantages of having an efficient and powerful golf swing will result in high ball velocity, which in turn will have a positive impact on performance. In addition, an efficient golf swing will require less effort to hit the ball the same distance when compared with someone that has less efficiency (Burden et al, 1998).

It is evident from biomechanical literature that using the longest lever available will result in the greatest force being produced (Cooper et al, 1974). This can be highlighted in the game of golf, where an individual seeks to hit their longest club in the bag when they want to achieve optimal distance. At the elite level in golf, the difference between hitting the ball that extra 5 or 10 yards in the air can be huge. This could be the difference between carrying bunkers off the tee, to going for the green in 2 at a par 5. These finite differences can separate a golfer from his competitors and can be the difference between success and failure.

As previously mentioned, golfers use the driver off the tee when they want to maximise distance. In contrast to this, Iron shots, chipping and putting are more about the feel that the golfer possesses, as the goal is to send the ball to a certain location with a required distance. In order to seek perfection in these categories, hand eye co-ordination is the skill required as opposed to strength and power.

The purpose of this study was to identify the components of fitness that an elite amateur golfer possesses, which would provide the fundamentals for an efficient swing. A battery of tests was constructed that replicated movements in the golf drive. These tests were performed by an elite amateur and recreational club golfer, which would highlight differences between results. A training programme was then constructed for the recreational subject, which would focus on the weaknesses and try to bridge the gap between the novice and elite athlete.

Athlete

Name: Keith Young

Gender: Male

Age: 36

Height: 5’10

Weight: 85kg

Handicap: +2

Club: Gullane

Keith Young is regarded as one of the best amateurs in Scotland and has been for many years. Keith has played at all levels of the game, representing his county and country along the way, together with turning pro for a spell earlier in his career. Keith was chosen for this project due to his past experience of competing at the top level, which will enable a true comparison to be drawn between an elite and novice golfer.

Novice/Control

Name: Stuart Brown

Gender: Male

Age: 39

Height: 5’9

Weight: 80kg

Handicap: 15

Club: Glencorse

Stuart has been playing golf for less than a year and in comparison to Keith he has a high handicap, which will enable the differences in physiological components of fitness to be highlighted in the golf swing.

Needs analysis

Barrentine et al. (2004) states that an efficient golf swing is a result of a sequence of muscular contractions that enables powerful rotation. Plowman and Smith (2003) define power as work divided by time. The power created in the golf swing is largely down to the strength of the muscles involved and the speed at which they contract. Large amounts of strength together with fast muscular contractions result in peak power output(McArdle et al, 2001), which essentially results in high ball velocities.

In addition to the golfer requiring to produce large amounts of force into the back of the ball, it is essential that they maintain core stability throughout the swing in order to maintain efficiency and reduce the amount of energy being wasted (Hosea et al, 1990). Gatt, (1996) and Lehman, (2006) also imply that sufficient core stability will reduce the likelihood of injury and will maximise the total energy that is transmittedthrough the ball. A study by Baechle and Earle (2008) conveyed that core stability was the ability of the central muscles to control the movement of the body in the anterior and posterior directions.

According to Hosea and Gatt, (1996), large levels of core stability around the abdominal and oblique area allow for an efficient transfer of power between the lower body and upper body. In contrast, low levels of core stability would result in the weaker muscle breaking down during the swing, which would result is the loss of energy and low power output. Due to the large amounts of force and torques being created during the golf swing, injury to the spine is likely if the athlete is not in the right condition. This is highlighted by Lehman, (2006) who noted that weak core stability will result in the golfer not being able to resist the large torques generated and may predispose the golfer to lower back pain.

The golf swing is a complex movement and involves a sequence of coiling of the legs, hips, back, arms and the club. The power output of the golf swing is a byproduct of the power generated by the agonist and antagonist contractions, which is known as the pre stretch principle (Baechle and Earle, 2008). The pre stretch principle usually involves a rapid change from deceleration to acceleration in the positive direction and can be best replicated by using polymeric exercises (Chu, 1998). The driving distance of a golfer is well documented in studies by Doan et al, (2006) and Fletcher and Hartwell, (2004) who conveyed that you can significantly increase your driving distance, with the implementation of polymeric training.

Muscle groups

In the golf swing it is imperative that the golfer has a solid base, as this will provide balance for the rotation of the upper body, which will result in large amounts of torque being generated. Barrentine et al, (1994) suggests that the hamstrings, quadriceps and gluts provide the base and in turn have a large role to play in the golf swing. A solid base in the golf swing will involve a stance of shoulder width apart and a flexion at the knee of 40 degrees. To enable this knee flexion and a solid base, there will be an eccentric contraction around the quadriceps with an opposing concentric contraction in the hamstrings. Furthermore the hip rotation that goes towards the target is controlled by the quadriceps adductors and abductors.

Barrentine et al. (1994), also state that it is imperative to contract the hip flexors, rotators and extensors if you want to achieve maximal club head speed, as in order to create this powerful transition between the lower and upper body, hip rotation is the vital ingredient to the cores rapid uncoiling.

In the same study by Barrentine et al. (1994) they also convey that a golfer must have strong forearms if they want to achieve optimal distance off the tee. This is largely due to strong forearms being able to resist the force of the club on the way down, allowing for a delay in the rotation of the forearms, which in turn increase the torque generated and essentially results in greater performance.

Methods

A battery of tests was constructed for both the athlete and the novice that would replicate the movements of the muscles in the golf drive. The tests were constructed in orderto cover all components of fitness that are vital in the golf swing and can be identified as; balance, power, strength and core stability. These tests were chosen as the golf swing is a whole body movement that involves open kinetic chain movements together with contractions of the muscles (Bruder et al, 1998).

The following tests were carried out at Craiglockhart Sports Centre, Edinburgh, UK. In order to ensure that there were no external factors present that could affect the validity of the results, all tests were carried out in the fitness suite and sports hall. In order to minimize the risk of injury, prior to testing, both subjects performed a 10 minute warm up to ensure heart rate was elevated and the muscles were warm (Olsen et al, 2004). In addition to this, they also replicated their own warm up that they would undergo prior to playing golf.

An overhead medicine ball throw (2kg; NIKE SPARQ) was prescribed to provide replication of the hip flexors on the back swing and downswing, as this ensures that the core and torso coil before rapidly uncoiling towards the target. This plyometric exercise was chosen to ensure that a pre stretch occurred around the hip joint. Fletcher and Hartwell. (2004) implied that in order for the projection of the ball to be successful, the subject would have to start the movement form the legs and in sequence transfer this energy through the hips and arms, which would ultimately lead to the projection of the ball. Poor co-ordination and an inability to link these sequential moves efficiently would result in loss of energy, which would present a poor throw. The subject required to stand in an upright position whilst holding the ball anterior to the hip flexors. The subjects then required to keep their arms extended, whilst flexing their knees, and then extend their knees to propel the ball vertically with the arms in the vertical direction. The ball was thrown overhead and distance was then recorded. Each subject was given 3 familiarisation trials post warm up, where upon they would have 3 trials and the best trial would be recorded.

A 45 degree incline medicine ball throw was the second plyometric test performed by both subjects. Subjects required to flex both their knees whilst holding the ball just outside of the right knee and keep their arms extended. The subjects were then instructed to rotate in the opposite horizontal direction and extend vertically, where they would propel the ball at 45 degrees in the upward direction, where upon distance would be recorded. The subjects were then required to carry out the same movement in the opposite direction, to ensure that they were both using concentric and eccentric contractions that are replicable in the golf swing (Beachle and Earle, 2008). This would also help to highlight potential weaknesses or imbalances between the dominant and non dominant sides.

One of the test measure used to measure core stability was the plank. This test involves the subjects to support their own body weight with the aid of their forearms and toes in the face down position. The plank requires the back to be flat at all times, together with a gap between the ground and core muscles at all times. Subjects were required to perform these tests to failure, which could be identified as a reduction in the gap present, increased curvature of the spine or failure to maintain the tension of the core muscle which would result in falling.

In addition to the front plank there is an alternative method that can be used, and is known as the side plank. This method is used to assess the strength of the oblique’s, which are present in the in both the loading of the back swing and rapid uncoiling of the downswing. Subjects were required lie on their side and support their body weight with the foot and forearm of the same side. Proper technique was deemed when the hip was raised off the ground and a straight line between the feet and head was present. This test was performed on both the left and right sides to failure, which would highlight imbalances between sides and potential areas of gain.

The back plank was the last testing plank protocol used to measure core stability. This test is similar to the previous planks, however it required subjects to face upwards and hold their body weight with both their heel and forearms. Again proper technique was only deemed if there was a straight line between the legs and upper body. However this exercise not only assesses the strength of the core muscles, it tests the strength of the lower back, which is one of the main injury risks in golfers (Vad et al, 2004).

A medicine ball twist to failure was the last method used to measure strength in the core muscles. This method required subjects to sit on the ground with their knees flexed at 90 degrees, whilst keeping their back straight. They would then proceed to rotate laterally on both sides, ensuring that the ball touched the ground, as this would replicate the rotation of the golf swing and would imply a plyometric effect. In order for the subject to return the ball to the ground of each side, they would require to maintain balance throughout the core muscles and erector spine. This test was performed to failure, which could be deemed when the subjects back or legs touched the ground, or the inability to enable the ball to touch the ground on consecutive occasions.

Strength in the forearm is a key element in the golf swing as mentioned previously. In order to measure this, a one rep max (1RM) was calculated for the flexion/extension of the wrist. The methods of Kraemer et al, (2002) were applied to this protocol to ensure that there was a low risk of injury. These methods required subjects to perform a 5RM in a seated position with the forearm resting on the knees, being flexed at 90 degrees, whereupon the dumbbell would be moved by the flexion of the wrist.

As mentioned previously, the legs are the base of the golf swing and invole a serious of concentric and eccentric contractions in the quadriceps and gluts. The strength of the lower body was measured by having the subject perform a 1RM seated leg press, where the knees were flexed at 90 degrees and extension of the knee provided the subjects maximum strength in the gluts, quads and knee joint. In addition to this, a 1RM of the back squat to parallel was calculated for the subjects using the established 5RM protocol provided by Kraemer et al. (2002). The back squat required the subject to hold an Olympic bar (20kg; Eleiko, Sweeden) just below the back of the neck in the upper trapezius region. Whilst keeping the back straight, the subject was instructed to squat down until there was a flexion of 90 degrees at the knee. This position was addressed in advance to the test with familiarisation trial and a safety bar being placed at the 90 degree position. The parallel squat was used as Beachle and Earle. (2008) imply that this test is a true measure of whole body strength and is also deemed to be safer than testing for strength during the midpoint of the squat. This test was found to be relevant as it replicates the golf swing as a whole body movement, with the muscle and joints having to work in sequence to provide efficiency.

Results

Table 1: Battery of test results

Exercise Athlete Novice
Leg Press260kg195kg
Back Squat135kg110kg
Overhead Med. Ball Throw45 ft.46 ft.
45 °Med. Ball Throw Left51ft. 40ft.
45 °Med. Ball Throw Right45.9 ft. 37 ft.
Med. Ball Twist45 reps. 42 reps.
Wrist Flexion27 kg. 26 kg.
Wrist Extension11 kg. 9 kg.
Plank3 minutes 4 seconds. 2 minutes 42 seconds.
Side Plank Left3 minutes 15 seconds. 1 minute 45 seconds.
Side Plank Right2 minutes 30 seconds. 1 minute 52 seconds.
Reverse Plank2minutes 42 seconds. 1 minutes 43 seconds.

Figure 1: Measures of core stability. Time to failure measured in seconds.

Figure 2: Measure of rotational power, distance measure in feet.

Discussion

The results illustrated above highlight that generally the elite golfer outperformed the novice golfer. In order to establish the differences between the two performers, components of fitness were put into different categories, of which were, power, core stability and strength. Due to the demands that strength training places on the body, it was agreed that flexibility work would be incorporated on a daily basis to ensure there was no restriction in range of motion.

Strength

As mentioned previously, power and strength are 2 key components in achieving a successful golf drive. Beachle and Earle. (2008) define strength as the ability to exert maximal force at a given velocity and in turn Kraemer et al. (2002) Portray they theory that in order to develop power, it is essential to have a strength base. Kraemer et al. (2002) also noted that individuals must train at intensities higher than 80% of their 1RM in order to seek optimal rewards.

Strength training would therefore be incorporated into the programme prior to the commencement of the power phase. The use of closed kinetic chain exercises would be employed as Kraemer and Ratamess, (2004) implies these compound movements enhance the production of muscular force.

Power

Plowman and Smith (2003)defined power as the product of force and velocity. Therefore, it is imperative when constructing a training programme to take into consideration both elements (Kraemer and Ratamess, 2004). During the power phase the athlete should attempt to lift the same loads they were lifting in the strength phase (>80% 1RM) but should attempt to do this at high speeds. Furthermore, the power production phase should involve the athlete lifting lighter loads (>60% 1RM) at maximal velocity (Power and Howley, 2009). Research within the literature (Beachle and Earle, 2008; Kraemer et al, 2002; Kraemer and Ratamess, 2004) suggests that maximal power production be addressed with the use of both heavy and light loads at maximal velocity.

Core stability

As illustrated in the results section, the elite athlete possessed higher levels of core stability when compared to the novice. In order to minimise the risk of injury and achieve optimal performance, core strength training has to be prescribed in the exercise training programme (Baechle and Earle, 2008). The goal is to increase the neuromuscular strength or the core and enhance endurance, rather than focussing on shear muscle fore, as inexperience in this area can lead to injury (Kraemer and Ratamess, 2004).

Exercise prescription

The control subject did not employ a training programme prior to testing or at any stage in the last couple of years, therefore this training programme would not disrupt any progression with any other physical components. Following the guideline of Kraemer et al. (2006) it was decided that the control subject would exercise 3 days per week. This would enable the subject to have sufficient rest periods between sessions and allow for adaptation to occur (Power and Howley, 2009).

The programme was prescribed in order to initiate the development of strength prior to the inclusion of the power phase, with development of core stability and maintenance of flexibility being incorporated throughout. All exercises with the exception of core stability were to be performed to 3 sets of 8; with a 2 minute rest period in between sets. The series of core exercises were prescribed to be performed for 4 sets of 25 reps and a 1 minute rest was deemed to be sufficient for recovery.

In order for physiological adaptation to occur, each training phase was prescribed for a period of 4 weeks, as Kraemer and Ratamess (2004) state this period of time is sufficient enough to allow for adaptation to the training stimulus.

Table 2: Strength development – Phase 1.

Day One

Day Two

Day Three

Deadlift

Unilateral dumbbell bench press

Squat

Bent over row

Shoulder lateral dumbbell raises

Triceps kickbacks

Core stability series

Shoulder rear dumbbell raises

Forearm curls/extensions

Flexibility series

Core stability series

Core stability series

–

Flexibility series

Flexibility series

The commencement of exercises prescribed in phase 2 could only be employed post phase 1, with the subject having adapted and now having a strength base. The goal in the power phase as noted by Kraemer and Ratamess. (2004) would be to apply maximal force at maximal velocity. In order to enhance power, it was deemed appropriate to reduce the weight to 60% of the athletes 1RM, as this would enable the load to be lifted at a higher velocity. All of the prescribed exercises were performed to 4 sets of 5 with 2 minutes rest, with the exception of the core, which was performed to 4 sets of 30.

Table 3 – Power – phase 2

Day OneDay TwoDay Three
Deadlift? Jump squatOne arm dumbbell snatch
Bent over rowHang pullTricep kickbacks
Unilateral dumbbell bench pressLateral medicine ball throw (off rebounder/wall)Forearm curls/extensions
Core stability seriesCore stability seriesCore stability series
Flexibility seriesFlexibility seriesFlexibility series

The purpose of phase 3 was to divide the week into 2 different components, of which 2 sessions would be on each. The sessions would be based on strength/power and ballistic/speed exercises. On the force production days, it was deemed imperative to perform all exercises for 3 reps and 5 sets, as Kraemer and Ratamess (2004) implies that this will enable maximal force production. The introduction of fast force sessions was incorporated to enhance power by moving heavy loads at high velocities. These sessions were to be performed for 5 sets and 3 reps, with 2 minutes rest in between. The speed exercises were employed to be performed with light weights (30-60% 1RM) which is highlighted in the study by Kraemer and Ratamess (2004). These exercises were in accordance with the same set and reps of the fast force sessions. The core exercises increased from 4 sets to 5, whilst keeping the reps the same.

Table 4: Maximal power – Phase 4.

Day One/MaxForceDay Two/SpeedDay Three/Fast ForceDay Four/Speed
Deadlift60m sprintHang pull60m sprint
SquatHang clean? jump squatOne arm dumbbell snatch
Forearm curls/extensionsCore stability seriesSeated Russian twist with weight plateLateral medicine ball throw (off rebounder/wall)
Triceps kickbacksCore stability seriesFlexibility seriesCore stability series
Flexibility seriesFlexibility series–Flexibility series

Conclusion

It is evident from all of the above, that in order to have efficiency in the golf drive, physiological components of fitness need to be addressed. With the comparison of the elite and novice golfer, noticeable difference can be highlighted and therefore shortfalls in the the novice are highlighted. A training programme can then be adopted following guidance within the literature and taking into account current fitness levels of the individual. This training programme aims to address the weaknesses in the novice golfer and provide a physiological basis for improvement taking into account the understanding of scientific literature.