Tag: Environment

Introduction

Environment-behavior relationships have been systematically studied by psychologists and a discipline was produced which known as ‘environmental psychology’, however, rarely attention was directed to the retail store environment. Meanwhile, there was a growing appeal to explain the variation in buyer behaviour by situational influences due to limitations in the ability of consumer characteristics. Thus, the purpose of this thesis is to analyse and understand the effect of store environment on shopping behaviour. First, some important issues applied in this area should be clarified. One is related to the description of store environment. The other is about the Mehrabian-Russell model, which played a vital role in the study of store atmosphere. Then the paper proceeds by summarizing and comparing some findings related to the relationship between three emotional states aroused by the environment and shopping behaviours. In the next chapter, it is concerned other previous findings, such as multiple effects of store environment and the moderated role of consumer characteristics in this relationship. The final part of the essay will give rise to thinking of the methodology authors used and the statistical validity of those findings.

Some Important Issues in Previous Studies

A concept of the store environment

An adequate concept of the store environment is the premise of the study of situational influence in consumer behaviour. Although there is not a complete definition of environment, it is widely accepted that environment is an extended concept which at least includes situations and behavioural settings. A situation comprised a point in time and space was proposed by Belk (1975a) and according to Barker (1968), a behaviour setting is not only bounded in time, also by a complete sequence of behaviour or an action pattern. Additionally, Mehrabian and Russell (1974) also attempted to develop three comprehensive situational descriptors (pleasure, arousal and dominance) in their model; however, none of them depicts a satisfying array of situational dimensions. On the basis of Belk’s (1975b) definition which comprises five groups of situational characteristics, the store environment could contain the physical and social surroundings of a store, the temporal dimension (ranging from time of day to season of the year), task definition features (an intent or requirement for a general or specific purchase) and antecedent states (momentary moods and conditions).

The Mehrabian-Russell environmental psychology model

A leading environmental psychology approach, the Mehrabian-Russell (M-R) model, was firstly introduced by Donovan and Rossiter (1982) in the retail context. It has become the basis of most research about the impact of environmental factors on shopping behaviour since that time. This model is based on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) paradigm, relating features of the environment (S) to approach-avoidance behaviours (R) within the environment, mediated by the individual’s emotional states (O) aroused by the environment; but this model mainly focuses on the O-R aspects and proposes a general measure of S. Mehrabian and Russell (1974) also proposed three basic emotional states (pleasure, arousal and dominance, acronym PAD) which mediated approach-avoidance behaviours in the environment and were adopted in majority of studies in emotional respond.

The Relationship between Emotions and Shopping Behaviours

There are some debates in the study of the relationship between emotions induced by a particular environment and shopping behaviours in this environment. The rest of the chapter will respectively exam the related findings based on three emotional states proposed in the M-R model.

Pleasure

Donovan and Rossiter (1982) concluded that store-induced pleasure was a powerful determinant of approach-avoidance behaviours within the store and also showed moderate relationships with specific within-store behavioural intentions: time (Coefficient=.51) and spend (Coefficient =.40). Afterwards, Donovan et al. (1994) extended that study and demonstrated shoppers’ emotional states within the store can predict actual purchase behaviour, not only just attitudes or intentions. That is, pleasure is significantly related to extra time and unplanned spending in pleasant environment. What the foregoing suggests is that pleasantness has a consistently positive effect on shopping behaviour in the literature.

Arousal

Arousal dimension, refers to store-induced feelings of alertness and excitement, was found not consistent with the two studies between Donovan and Rossiter (1982) and Donovan et al. (1994). In Donovan and Rossiter’s (1982) study which involved different types of retail stores, arousal was not significantly related to approach-avoidance behaviours, but according to the M-R model, arousal should be hypothesized to interact conditionally with pleasure. After given a pleasant store environment, arousal emerged as a significant predictor of approach intentions for time (Coefficient=.40) and the regression coefficient for spend (Coefficient=.18) was also in the right direction but did not reach significant. In other words, inducement of arousal amplifies approach behaviour in pleasant store environment and enlarges avoidance behaviour in unpleasant store environment. Hence, emotional states sometimes can be presented by some combination of two major dimensions: pleasure and arousal. However, Donovan et al. (1994) failed to confirm this relationship in the study conducted only in discount stores. First, arousal was not significant in pleasant environment. Second, arousal approached significance for unplanned spending, but in the negative direction. From Kaltcheva and Weitz’s (2006) point of view, this inconsistent finding implied arousal effects might be moderated by a previously unidentified situational variable, namely, the consumers’ motivational orientation. They have conducted two experiments using ANOVA on those three elements, motivational orientation, arousal and pleasantness to confirm the interactive effect. Finally, it was concluded that arousal and motivational orientation had an interactive effect which was mediated by pleasantness on shopping behaviour. Specifically, high arousal environments, which create rich shopping experiences, have a positive effect on pleasantness for recreation-oriented motivational consumers. Conversely, arousal had no significant effect on shopping behaviour intentions with regard to task-oriented consumers.

Dominance

The dominance factor is usually been deleted when using the M-R model. Although Donovan and Rossiter (1982) retained the initial tridimensional (PAD) classification, the analysis indicated that the dominance dimension was not significantly related to any of the approach-avoidance measures apart from the general regression results. Furthermore, a slight negative relationship between dominance and spend was shown, but that result was very tentative because it was based on two of the weakest measure (Coefficient Alpha < .7). In contrast to regarding the role of dominance as unimportant, several authors supported that future theory development should include it as a vital emotion influencing shopping behaviour. One reason for that is a new relationship between dominance and shopper behaviour has found in certain types of consumers. As Babin and Darden (1995) stated, feelings of dominance could significantly alter shopping behaviour among those in self-regulation and it only affected state-oriented shoppers who possessed a cognitive structure guided more by social and emotional elements of some internal or external state. The other reason attributes to the poor scope of consumer settings was employed which leaded to the disappointing results for dominance (Foxall and Greenley, 1999). After employing Mehrabian-Russell’s approach to environmental psychology based on a systematic theory of consumer situations, namely the Behavioural Perspective Model (BPM), the relationships between dominance and approach (positive) and dominance and avoidance (negative) appeared. Therefore, those results support the adoption of the BPM model in environmental consumer research, which makes a contribution to the selection of a range of consumer situations and the distinction between open and closed consumer behaviour settings.

To summarize, two generally recognized findings were drawn in the study of the relationship between emotions induced by a particular environment and shopping behaviours. First, shoppers’ emotions can be largely represented by the pleasure and arousal factors (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Donovan et al., 1994) and the dominance dimension seems to be important for certain types of shoppers and retail settings (Babin and Darden, 1995; Foxall and Greenley, 1999). Second, those three emotional states, mainly pleasure and arousal dimensions, affect a variety of shopping behaviours and outcomes, including extra time spent and actual unplanned spending (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Donovan et al., 1994).

Discussion of Other Previous Findings

Apart from some important findings discussed in the previous chapter, issues of multiple effects of store environment and moderating role of consumer characteristics were also considered in the previous research. Meanwhile, several propositions for future research will be suggested.

Multiple effects of store environment

The effects of store environment elements could be complex and they could influence shoppers’ behaviours through their impacts on emotion (PAD), cognition (attention, evaluations, information search, etc.) and physiological state (Lam, 2001). With the exception of Donovan et al. (1994), all studies discussed in this thesis are only focus on the emotional effects of store environment on behaviours. In Donovan et al.’s (1994) research, they investigated the multiple effects (emotional factors and cognitive factors) of store environment simultaneously. By adding the emotional variables to the cognitive variables to predict the change in extra time, the variance accounted for increased from (a non-significant) 5% (F=1.72) to (a significant) 21% (F=3.62), and to the prediction of unplanned spending, went up from 18% (F=4.34) to 35% (F=6.40) (both significant). Hence, those results explain that the effects of the emotional factors of pleasure and arousal can be additional to cognitive factors such as quality, variety, specialing and value for money. It was displayed that some environmental elements may have multiple impacts on shoppers’ behaviours. Therefore, it is worth studying the single and hybrid effects and analysing which is the primary effect in a particular environment.

Moderating role of consumer characteristics

Due to the fact that researchers used the environment of different stores as manipulations in their analysis, many considerable works about store-based emotions’ consequences were addressed (Lam, 2001). Though Donovan and Rossiter (1982) suggested that the impact of individual differences should also be pursued especially in the same physical environment, relatively little attention been given to the effect of personal characteristics on the relationship between shoppers’ emotions and behaviours in the environment. Donovan et al. (1994) only considered that effect at the stage of collecting the data. They selected shoppers who were relatively unfamiliar with the store as their sample to minimize self-selection effects on their findings. In addition, Babin and Darden (1995) regarded this topic by concerning the role of individual differences and ultimately examined consumer self-regulation as a partial explanation for the variance in consumer behaviour and postshopping evaluations. In sum, the moderated role of consumer characteristics has extended the knowledge concerning the effects of retail environment on behaviour. However, consumer self-regulation is just one of the factors of consumer characteristics, so many other elements could be developed in future research, for example, consumer shopping experiences with the store. Variable reactions in the same environment may be performed between new consumers and regular consumers. New customers may more rely on some tangible cues and merchandise because of their little knowledge or experience about other attributes of the store environment.

Methodology

It is widely known that the correlation between explanatory variables and the experimental design will has an influence on the power of hypothesis testing and validity of the conclusion. In terms of the data analysis, although all the journal articles reviewed here used quantitative methodology, qualitative methodology was also adopted by others (Lam, 2001); for example, using the method of in-depth interview with shoppers or participant observations to record their responses to the environment.

With regard to sample selection and situational manipulation, methods applied in earlier studies were limited in three aspects. Firstly, the sample was confined to student (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982; Kaltcheva and Weitz’s, 2006). Second, verbal descriptions of situations were employed or a simulated store environment was created rather than exposing respondents to actual consumer environments (Babin and Darden, 1995; Foxall and Greenley, 1999; Kaltcheva and Weitz’s, 2006). Third, the study is lack of theoretical coherence, relying on invented situations rather than conceptually linked environments. However, some authors have made some improvements in their researches. For example, Donovan et al. (1994) impressively overcame two of these limitations by using actual consumers (60 female shoppers) in real consumer settings (at two discount department stores), but the generality of their findings was lower because it was only conducted in one type of store environment. Likewise, Kaltcheva and Weitz (2006) improved two limitations by employing 142 actual consumers who responded to and selecting a range of consumer situations based systematically on the BPM framework. Although the coefficients of the test were small, all results of three emotional dimensions were significant and in the predicted direction, however, their research did not overcome all those three limitations. In order to increase the external validity, future research could incorporate actual consumer settings to the range of BMP-generated environment instead of simulated environments because verbal descriptions can be value-laden (Baker et al., 1992). Moreover, Belk (1975b) suggested that the best means of manipulation is to ‘combine written descriptions of features with visual and auditory input of physical and social surroundings.

References

Babin, B. J. and Darden, W. R. (1995), ‘Consumer Self-Regulation in a Retail Environment.’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 71 (1), pp. 47-70.

Baker, J., Levy, M. and Grewal, D. (1992), ‘An Experimental Approach to Making Retail Store Environmental Decisions,’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 68 (4), pp. 445-60.

Belk, R. W. (1975a), ‘The Objective Situation as a Determinant of Consumer Behaviour,’ in Mary Jane Schlinger (ed.), Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 2, Chicago: Association for Consumer Research.

Belk, R. W. (1975b), ‘Situational Variables and Consumer Behaviour.’ Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 2 (December), pp. 157-164.

Donovan, R. J. and Rossiter, J. R. (1982), ‘Store Atmosphere: An Environmental Psychology Approach.’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 58 (1), pp. 34-57.

Donovan, R. J., Rossiter, J. R., Marcoolyn, G. and Nesdale, A. (1994), ‘Store Atmosphere and Purchasing Behaviour.’ Journal of Retailing, Vol. 70 (3), pp. 283-294.

Foxall, G. R. and Greenley, G. E. (1999), ‘Consumers Emotional Responses to Service Environments.’ Journal of Business Research, Vol. 46, pp. 149-158.

Kaltcheva, V. D. and Weitz, B. A. (2006), ‘When Should a Retailer Create an

Exciting Store Environment?’ Journal of Marketing, Vol. 70 (January), pp. 107-118.

Lam, S. Y. (2001), ‘The Effects of Store Environment on Shopping Behaviours: A Critical Review.’ Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 28, pp. 190-196.

Introduction:

Ash from Iceland’s eyjafjallajokull volcano triggered an unprecedented shutdown of European airspace for six days until the 21st of April 2010, paralyzing many airports and trapping hundreds of thousands of tourists and business travellers. The flight ban was compulsory because ash can turn to molten glass in the high temperatures of an aircraft’s turbine and cripple the engine. The safety and security of travellers was the first priority of the airlines’ companies and accordingly they had to stop all their flights within Europe, which in turn affected the whole tourism’s industry including hotels. BBC, 2010)

However, each company had their own point of view on the best actions that can be taken in these types of situations and unique circumstances, depending on some of the business and economical theories and concepts. Nevertheless, to demonstrate and understand these actions Mrs. Judith Piggott’s experience with British airways and a local hotel is used. In this report, these theories will be presented and analyzed; in addition the way that the companies implemented them in this case will be exposed.

Supply and Demand and how do they effect the price and the Market Equilibrium:

To understand the local hotel’s attempt, which is lowering their price, the terms supply, demand and Market Equilibrium must be known. Firstly, the term demand means “the want or desire to possess a good or service with the necessary goods, services, or financial instruments necessary to make a legal transaction for those goods or services” (see appendix 1), and the relationship between price and quantity demanded is an inverse or negative relationship. This means that when price goes up quantity demanded goes down, and when price goes down quantity demanded goes up true for individuals, modules (e.g. Groups of consumers), whole markets. Secondly, the word supply in economics means “the amount of a product that the firm is able and willing to put on the market over a specified period” (see appendix 1). The market supply is the sum of the supply of all firms at any given price, there is a positive relationship between price and quantity, when price goes up quantity supplied goes up (Tucker, 2008). Finally and the most important term for our case is the Market Equilibrium, where the supply and demand intersect or in another words when the quantity of product supplied equals the quantity of product demanded at any given price (see appendix 2). (Wessels, 2006)

Therefore, the Market Equilibrium is the goal for any firm to avoid any surpluses (see appendix 3) or shortages (see appendix 4). By understanding these concepts we can recognise that the local hote were concerned that because of the ash clouds, the coming customers’ numbers will be less than usual adding to that the other competitors in the market which will even lower the numbers more, consequently minimising the hotel’s chare from the whole market. Therefore, the hotel had to lower their prices firstly to avoid surpluses of empty rooms, and secondly to compete with the other hotels in the market.

Gaining the customer loyalty:

The regular company in the UK wastes from 20-40% of its customers each year. By acknowledging this issue and its negative influence on the company competitiveness and profitability, a firm must swap from the long accepted market share strategy to a completely different long-term approach to business, which is building the customer loyalty (Bell and Patterson, 2004). Boosted loyalty can bring cost savings to a firm in at least six areas:

Reduced marketing costs (customer gaining or attracting costs require more pounds).
Lower switching costs such as contract negotiation and order processing.
Reduced customer turnover costs (fewer lost customers to replace).
Increased cross-selling success leading to larger share of market.
More positive word of mouth and better company image.
Reduced collapse costs.

Five advantages for making a first time customer a lifetime purchaser (Loyal customer):

Sales go up, because the customer is purchasing more from the firm.
The firm is strengthening their situation in the marketplace, when clients are buying from them instead of their competitors.
Marketing costs decrease when the firm doesn’t have to spend a huge amount of money to attract repeat customers, since they already have them. In addition, as satisfied customers they tell their friends (Word of mouth marketing) thereby decreasing your need to advertise. Therefore, decreasing marketing costs.
Avoiding price competition with competitors, because a loyal customer is less expected to be attracted away to another competitors by a discount of a few pounds.
Finally, a satisfied customer is expected to sample the firm’s other product lines thus helping to achieve a larger share of customers.

When a firm is spending less to attract new customers, it can afford to pay their staff’s better wages. Better salaries prompt a chain reaction, with huge benefits. If a company is able to maintain good workers, the company’s loyalty both internally and externally improves. Just as customer retaining has a positive influence on profitability, customer defection can have a negative influence. Defection by a long-term customer (Loyal customer) can cause an intense loss and affect the bottom line faster than defection by a new customer. Both of customer loyalty and satisfaction are two words that go into the Sales Strategic Plan. (Lawfer, 2004).

Both of British airways and Thomson’s holidays tried to gain the customer’s loyalty and expand their customers’ base by their actions. For example, British airways paid off their customers the extra nights hotel’s fees, and they did that in a short period of time. Whereas companies such as Ryan air refused to do so. In addition, Thomson holidays were so generous and caring with their customers they paid for the extra nights, food and they even send their cruises to pick their clients and return them home. While, other companies where so mean and untruthful to their clients, they promised to pay for the meals and then retreat and demanded money for them. Which had a negative impact on their customer base. Thus lowered the number of returning customers and that can be seen clearly from Ryan air customer’s feedback. Even though British airways and Thomson holidays lost a huge amount of money on the short run, but they gained their customer’s loyalty and trust. Consequently, expanded their customers’ base, which will recover their losses in the long run (Reichheld, 1996).

Conclusion:

To sum up, the Iceland’s volcanic ash had a strong impact on the airlines industry and forced the companies to stop all their flight within Europe, which in turn affected the tourism industry as a whole. Companies’ actions towards this incident varied from one to another, depending on some of the commercial and economical theories and principles. Some of the companies such as British airways and Thomson holidays were looking more on the future and tried to maintain their customer base and gain their trust, by being helpful and truthful with their clients. On the other hand companies such Rayan air and some of the other holiday’s firms, were dishonest and looked more on the present and how to avoid losses. Even though British airways and Thomson lost a huge amount of money on the short run, but maintaining their customer base will allow them to cover these losses in the long run.In terms of pricing strategies the local hotel depended on the great understanding of the economical terms supply, demand and Market Equilibrium. They pushed the price down so they can raise the demand up and achieve the Market Equilibrium, and in turn avoid surpluses or shortages in rooms. Moreover, pushing the prices down will able them to compete with other competitors in the market and expand their market share. In my opinion British airways and Thomson holidays made the right strategic decision and approached the right actions, because of the advantages of increasing the loyalty and maintaining loyal customers that I mentioned previously. In addition, I think the local hotel were also successful in their pricing strategies, because if they did not push the prices down there would had been a huge numbers of unequipped rooms, and their losses would had been even grater.

Reference list

BBC (2010) Icelandic volcanic ash alert grounds UK flights. April 15, 2010 [online]. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8621407.stm [Accessed on April 22, 2011]

Bell, C. And Patterson, J. (2004) Customer Loyalty, Guaranteed: Create, Lead, And Sustain

Remarkable Customer. Massachusetts: Adams Media

Lawfer, M. (2004) Why Customers Come Back: How to Create Lasting Customer Loyalty. New Jersey:

The Career Press

Reichheld, F. (1996) The loyalty effect: the hidden force behind growth, profits, and

lasting value. Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press

Tucker, I. (2008) Macroeconomics for Today. Ohio: Cengage Learning

Wessels, W. (2006) Economics. New York: BARRON’S

Abstract

The present study contributes to the discussion on implementation of ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) in the environment of SMEs (Small and Medium Size Enterprises). The yield of an enterprise can be accumulation of integration system for creating a competitive advantage in present times. The integration of enterprise systems is achieved by project management and risk management is the respective organizations. With such compilation, often the risk management and project management helps to supervise the management of firms to assess the occurring deadlines and problems. Once the risks are identified and handled properly then the project can be even more implemented smoothly. The theoretical section entailing the literature and research methods offers a better understanding of the enterprise resource planning along with risk management and project management. The theoretical section helps to analyze how they meet the objectives stating the various techniques used in project management to lessen the risks and even the implementation of successful ERP systems in the SMEs. They help the researcher to choose an appropriate research method to obtain the accurate results from the observed data which is collected from the secondary research. The results from the obtained study show the successful and unsuccessful enterprises which adopts the suitable project management techniques to diminish the risks.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Evaluating the present Enterprise System and highlighting the significant issues with suggesting and implementing different ways for improvement in terms of risk management and project management. This also tries to meet the business objectives and also in assessing the small and medium enterprises risk’s. It is very common for the organizations to move to an ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) proposal without initially conducting the required planning and due attentiveness to make successful project. For every organization it is important to get the complete information through which they can analyze exactly what is their role in the organization and in what role they want to be in future and this also helps in getting the information of weaknesses and strengths, the areas that need to be improved and the core competencies. This process helps in creating the community plan of effective business and this helps in developing the management of business continuity. For the making the business process successful some steps need to be followed such as, developing the strategy, rehearsing the plan, analyzing the business, assessing the risk.

There are various risks that can be identified and can be learned in those below there are six risks that can be learned.

ERP and its related software: what kind of omissions and errors happen in the development and configuration of the software suite of ERP?

Business Fit: This checks if there is an alignment among the abilities that the system of ERP is expected for providing the abilities that is probably ends up providing?

Quality of data: What kind of problems will be run into the process with the timeliness, extent or structure, accuracy of the primary information that is loaded into the system of ERP?

Project management: In this the issues that are steaming from the schedule, contracts, staffing or budget of the program which has to be managed.

Organizational Readiness: This checks whether the organization is sufficiently prepared for the people those who use the novel system of ERP for which they have to experience?

The holistic approach to the risk management of ERP includes:

Developing the plans of risk management for those, which has a high priority and this deepens the understanding of likelihood, causes, and the potential impact.

Developing a company plan of learning that includes learning of novel skills and the different way of working and mastering of novel software and hardware and for the people on the program of ERP team and managing of the large magnitude changes.

Articulating of a clear vision of the organizations success and this provides an encouragement that helps the program to keep on track, this happens during the implementation time and a typical for moderating the achievement at the end.

1.1 ERP

The programs of Enterprise resource planning are very disreputable level to the execution of difficulties. Most of the organizations overrun their schedules or slip their budgets, or dissatisfy their sponsors or all the above. The failure rates of program are differently estimated to be at least 60%. The reason for understanding the ERP program risks and significant to mitigate them have to be a basic concern for any kind of program manager. There are six learned risks that can be implemented in the implementation of ERP.

1.2 Rationale

This project gives the reason of why the project is significant and why increasing success and reducing the risk is significant in the Enterprise systems involvement in the enterprises of small and medium size.

1.3 Problem Definition

The main reason of increasing success and reducing risk in the integration of enterprise system with the organizations of small and medium sized is to either take advantage of the required risks or to either prevent risk from issue development. This helps in converting the opportunities, the concerned risks can build up into issues and similarly few issues or risks can be turned to opportunities. The techniques and tools that are used in the process of risk management and this play a significant role in the project’s success.

This is very interesting to keep a well track that defines process of risk management which exists in almost every organization, in regard to that, failures still occur.

Why the processes of Research Methodology fail with the existent process
Are the correct techniques and tools are being used in the correct process of PRM

1.4 Aims and Objectives of Project

Aims

The significant aim of this concerned project is to develop a novel model of project management and this is to assist the integration and implementation of the technologies of enterprise system successfully in to the small and medium enterprises.

Objectives

For the completion of this project the author has to follow the below objectives:

Conducting a literature review on the implementation of enterprise systems, project management techniques that include PMBOK, PRINCE2 and SCRUM and the methodologies of IT based risk management.
Conducting a review of the unsuccessful enterprise system and successful enterprise system integration of the projects inside the UK based small and medium enterprise and has to compare it as the best in the whole world.
To develop a model that is theoretical to help the integration of successful enterprise system by evaluating the present techniques and technologies of the risk management.
To conduct a review into the issues and requirements that small and medium enterprises face when the enterprise system integrate into the concerned organizations.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Project management

A project is considered as any work which occurs only once, that has a lucid initiation and ending. It is mainly intended to produce a unique knowledge or product. A project entails single or thousands of individuals and it may take days or years to get completed. At the same time project management is considered as the usage of skills, knowledge, techniques and tools to plan the activities so as to exceed or meet the requirements of stakeholder and anticipations of a project. Sometimes, a project manager is considered as a project leader or coordinator who controls the details of given project as per the daily basis. It is referred as an ongoing challenge that needs an appreciative contextual project environment and the capability to balance the inconsistent demands among existing expectations and resources, different priorities of stakeholders; recognized requirements and scope of project; quantity and quality.

Auspiciously, different varieties of tools and techniques for project management are being enhanced for the above purpose that is described in below sections.

2.2 Project Management Techniques

2.2.1 PMBOK

The PMBOK is the Project Management Body of Knowledge and this is recognized internationally and this mainly deals with the application of the tools, skills, techniques and meets the requirements of the project. The PMBOK usually defines the life cycle of the project, 9 areas of knowledge and 5 process groups. For any kind of projects in small and medium enterprises there has to be a flow in which the process has to go. PMBOK is one of the project management techniques and this can be followed in any organization.

To start with the work the employees has to divide into teams and for every project the team has to operate in 9 different areas of knowledge and also with few basic process and this is summarized below:

Integration: Initially a charter has to be developed and with this plan and scope of the statement is also essential and even managing, monitoring and controlling of change in project.

Scope: Definition, control, verification and WBS (Work Breakdown Structure) creation.

Cost: Control, planning of resource, estimating of cost and budgeting.

Time: Sequencing, Development of Scheduling, estimating duration, and sequencing.

Human Resources: Hiring of project members, planning of human resources, managing and developing of the project team.

Quality: Controlling of quality, Assurance of quality, and quality planning.

Communications: Managing of stakeholders, performance reporting, distribution of information, communications planning.

Risks: Risk controlling and monitoring, Identification, planning of risk, Risk analysis which is quantitative or qualitative and risk response.

Response: Contracting and acquisition plan, selection, contract closure, contract administration, seller’s response.

The technique of PMBOK is mainly used in the applications of General management programs, Product development in marketing department, Processes that are specific to industry, Government programs, Development programs in the international firms, and this mainly can be used in the applications of small and medium enterprises (Duncan Haughey, 2011).

2.2.2 SCRUM

The methodology of SCRUM is some kind of distinctive representative of responsive methods. This approach can be used as an alternative process for the project management and the reasons for this are discussed below:

The SCRUM is one of the kinds of Meta model project and this allows for deciding how the process of design, analysis, testing and implementation are carried out. All these processes are not specific to any kind method or process. This process can be applicable to any kind of techniques. The process of SCRUM mainly consists of three kinds of major phases they are the development phase, post game phase and pre game phase.

These are developed in a sequence process and discussed below in that sequence process.

Pre game process: In the process of pre game phase majorly two activities can be taken place that is planning of activities can be carried out in such that they can define the developed systems. This process can be achieved by backlog list creating and this list usually contains all the requirements which are well known. In the complete process of software development the backlog list is changed. The present backlog list will be improved according to the requirements when the novel knowledge is available and this reflects according to the requirements of the novel product. The process of backlog list is the instrument of central planning this is because it serves as the part of standard for updating the assessments and establishment of the priorities regarding the requirements that has to be implemented and this can be does in the next increment.

This phase of pre game also integrates the phase of architecture and in this process the system architecture of high level is changed and developed. This means that the changes in the backlog list are completely reviewed from perspective of design. The main importance here is on how clarified or additional requirement that can make changes if required in the part of design.

Development Phase: The phase of development is carried out in the sprints and these are the iterative cycles through which the functionality is enhanced or developed and this process is done to produce novel increments. In this each sprint comprises of the conventional phases of the development of projects which is implementation, design, testing, analysis, delivery and requirements elicitation. Usually the sprints last for only 30 days. It is to put into practice for which the increments functionality is only determined in the planning meeting of the Sprint, where management, customers and users decide which functionality and goals has to be implemented in the next sprint. At the time of execution of the process of sprint, there are few meetings of Scrum and these are organized in well manner for keeping track of the Scrum team progress continuously. This process is done for deciding the next process and discussing the reviewed problems. The Scrum results will be held on the sprint’s last day and this can be concluded with the review meeting of Sprint to the users, management and customers. The review is used for assessing the increment of the product and also helps in making decisions regarding the activities that are subsequent. This can also happen when the changes are mainly made to the way of the system that is being built.

Post Game Phase: The phase of post game is only entered at the time of agreement arrival and this is given only among the stakeholders and to those who doesn’t have kind of requirements are left or these must be incorporated in the release. The phase of post game typical activities of deployment like system testing documentation and integration are taken place.

These phases are very much important for project management and this also helps in managing of risk (Reinhold Plosch, 2004).

2.2.3 Prince2

The technique of Prince2 mainly deals with the project management and this does not insist on specifically any kind of technical approach which usually varies from project to project. The method Prince2 can be used in the amalgamation with the other development technology or design technology and this can be used even if the management association to the defined technology has taken a different form of the technology of design. Prince2 doesn’t involve in purchasing or outsourcing of the project management techniques. The method of Prince2 mainly assumes that the concerned project will only proceed in the limits of the contract. This process of contracting is not completely a part of the Prince2 but this is the part of the activities that are technical and which can be controlled by using the method. The data established in different managing documents and those that are within PRINCE2 usually provide an intrinsic source, excellent for monitoring and for the preparation of the required contracts.

The main theme of the Prince2 is the process of managing the project, the connection and interaction among the projects environment and project, deployment of resources and staff. For all kinds of project management Prince2 cannot be used. Communicative and social skills and techniques like Gantt charting, supporting of software projects and network planning are not from this part of the method. This also proves to be a advantage for the method. This method can be used in all kinds of the projects as this Prince2 method is not bound to any kind of the project. This method can be used in any kind of organization and with every combination and with all the various other types of techniques and this also supports various packages of software. The complete project management is for people and this cannot be used as a recipe book but has to be used in the various combinations of the common sense and with the correct social and technical skills. Even though the prince2 doesn’t respond and involve to the social skills, and this support the preferred social behavior that is required to manage the projects effectively. This shows that a perfect structure only support the required behavior.

The main significant aspect of the method prince2 is the Interaction and this is much secured in terms of responsibilities, authorities and tasks in the roles of the project. This process can be controlled more effectively and efficiently and colleagues can relate and understand everyone’s responsibilities and these roles can be easily established.

The method Prince2 distinguishes eight components and eight different processes and only three different techniques that are change of control technique, review of quality and product based planning. Consider if any organization is having efficient change technique in controlling or/and a process for checking the project documents quality after this they can be used in terms of relevant techniques of PRINCE2. On the other hand the technique of product based planning is recommended strongly. The reason for this is, it supports most of the good features of the project, the other techniques and procedures are kept completely outside the process of method. There are four different theories in the Prince2 which form a foundation for the complete method and they are

The project will be successful only if all the required stakeholders are completely satisfied with the outcome of the project: Stakeholders are none other than users, the suppliers, executives and the staff of the concerned project. Every time it will be not possible to satisfy all the stakeholders and not possible to supply the terms on time which were discussed before and even within the budget. This was not an opinion was from the executive who play as a role of stakeholder but all the stakeholder experience the same. The important part of the project management is to satisfy all the parties of stakeholders and managing their expectations.
The projects that are successful are business driven: For every project there will be a basic need and this particular basic business need must be consider as the initial part of the project. As a part of the project progress, there has to be regular checkups of the basic requirement and is very important. If the staff found that the basic requirements are not clear then this will form as an obstacle for sustaining the management’s involvements and generating the required funds and they try to promote the project in the environment. There will be a framework by the business case and this will be within the user’s requirements and will be based on the support and use of the results that has to be delivered.
All the projects must be carried out in the environment that is changing: The changes in the internal organization, market changes, increasing of user’s insight etc. initiation of project changes and these particular changes may again affect the requirements of the project. The projects have to be setup in such a way that they can easily change in a manner that is completely controlled.
For a project to be successful the corporation is important: For implementing the change all the projects must be setup in particular order. In this process corporation is a very significant factor. When all the required stakeholders are involved in the management and the setup of the project then the outcome acceptance will always be higher.

These four are the main points which affect the management and setup of the project and are responsible for translating the project into organization.

2.2.3.1 Characteristics of Prince2

The method Prince2 always differentiates in different number of ways when compared with the other methods of project management. They are

At the project management level creation of stakeholder involvement: In every project the main involvement has to be from suppliers and users and apart from that the suppliers and users have to represent the project management level. There has to be a good communication level among all the stakeholders and it is essential that there has to be a commitment among these parties. The method Prince2 understands this process by including the suppliers and users as the project board representatives and in the role of senior supplier and senior user.

Focus of Justification: While undertaking the project business case forms the justification and this forms the foundation for carrying and starting out a new project. The business case helps the project in starting and carrying out the complete project. After the delivery of the project an evaluation process is undertaken and this determines if the project outcome has really delivered the actual benefits of the customer.

The management of the risk is completely included into the projects lifecycle: The risk of management of the method Prince2 is not an independent approach but this is an integral part of the management process of Prince2. This indicates the process of how the risks can be managed during the complete process of project and also indicates who is responsible for what.

Stages of Management: The method Prince2 differentiates among technical stages and management stages. The stages of management are driven by time coupled with a clear no go decision or go decision regarding the projects progress. The stages of the management setups are very significant in putting the concerned management by exception into practice (Bert Hedeman, Gabor Vis van Heemst and Hans Fredriksz, 2006).

2.3 Small and Medium Enterprises

For reducing poverty and accelerating growth, some of the international agencies and World Bank Group are provided some of the targeted help to the SME’s (Small and Medium Enterprises) and this is done in the economies that are developed. The process of this kind of policy is completely based on the three basic arguments, initially the advocates of Small and medium enterprises advocates have argued that the enhancement competition of Small and Medium Enterprises and the entrepreneurship and based on this they have few external profits on innovation, growth of comprehensive production and efficiency that is economy wide. Based on this the support from direct government for small and medium enterprises mainly helps various countries that exploit the social profits from greater entrepreneurship and competition. Secondly, the small and medium enterprises proponents usually support the SME’s which are usually with the huge productive than some of the large firms but in the market of finance and in some of the institutional failures impede the development of small and medium enterprises. Therefore pending institutional and financial improvements and direct financial support from government to the small and medium enterprises as this can boost the economic development and growth. Lastly some of them argue that the expansion of Small and Medium Enterprises boost the growth of employment in large scale when compared with the large firms, this is because the small and medium enterprises have intense labor. According to this perspective subsidizing of SME’s might represent a tool of poverty improvement. There are four unconvinced questions that has a great value for this policy (Biggs and Tyler, 2002). Initially some of the authors have stresses the benefits of the large organizations and challenges the hypothesis that are underlying the view of pro-SME. Particularly it is said that large firms can exploit the easily take the costs that are fixed and make use of economies of scale that are associated with the department of Research and Development with the positive effects of production (pagano, patrizio and schivardi, 2001). Furthermore few of them say that huge organizations provide more constant and hence they provide jobs that are high quality when compared with the smaller firms with the positive consequence for the improvement of poverty (Brown et al, 1990).

The other view usually challenges the required assumptions that are underlying the arguments of pro-SME. Particularly few researchers found that small and medium enterprises are neither have a perfect option for job nor have more labor intensive. In addition to that some of the recent works have found that under developed legal and a financial institution doesn’t hurt small and medium enterprises. Indeed these researches have found that institutions that are under developed constraint organizations from increasing to their sizes effectively.(Beck, et. Al, 2002). The next set of views mainly questions the legality of size of the firm which has to be considered as the part of exogenous determinant of the growth of economic.

2.4 Risk Management

Risk is generally considered uncertainty of an obtained outcome which is omnipresent as well as present in every walk of life. Risk is mainly present in business sectors, in particular the SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). Risk management is considered as an ongoing process which assists to enhance the operations, making sure of regulatory compliance, prioritizes resources, enhances the financial stability, attains performance targets and eventually prevents damage or loss to the entity.

2.4.1 Planning Risk Management:

The intention of planning risk management process is to create a plan for risk management; but it is different from risk planning. The plan of risk management is how to deal with the risks that are related to a project. It illustrates how it is defined, monitored and controlled all the way through the project. Such plan also explains how knowledge is implemented, observes and managed throughout the project area (Kim, 2005).

2.4.2 Risk Identification:

This process entails the identification and documentation of all risks that are entailed and which may impact the performance of a project. It entails categorizing risks, reviewing documents of project, reviewing the checklists, utilizing methods like brainstorming in order to recognize risks and eventually creating the list of project entailing risks.

2.4.3 Risk Analysis:

It is the process of entailing the activities like verifying the impacts of risk, probability of occurrence as well as prioritizing according to the significance of risk. The most effectual way is to plan such risks is by explaining them by risk impact and probability in an easy way by high, medium and low scales. Such probabilities are followed by confidence levels which are typically worked out with the help of internal experts; however the impact is a problematic issue. At times the external experts and directors are entailed.

2.4.4 Risk control and monitoring:

The intension of process of risk control and monitoring is to react to the risks that take place, track and observe recognized risks, asses the plans for risk response for gaining effectiveness, determine new risks and make sure of appropriate procedures for risk management which are being considered and defined in the plan of risk management.

Risk monitoring is considered as the last level in the process of risk management. The organization must give importance for continuous updating and reviewing its processes of risk management since the industry atmosphere shows it with an ever changing and dynamic atmosphere particularly when considering the single projects as well as their several requirements. Regular monitoring offers directors and management with a guarantee that the system of risk management is working appropriately to lessen the risks and assisting to maintain a track of the determined risks, entailing the list of observation. Main purpose of risk monitoring is a traditional view to allow proactive corrective activities. Risk monitoring helps the company to review and monitor risk process in a better place and to deal with unexpected events causing the failure of project behind the plan. An environmental change in the company may impact available risks and even result in new risks, therefore the companies must follow the steps in the process of risk management in order to determine the risks occurring in a while (Desheng, 2010).

2.5 Strategy of Risk Management

The initial step is to produce a plan for risk response in order to determine the risks that may influence the project. Managers, partners and staff of a project must brainstorm which refers to the charter, budget, and calendar of actions to recognize the probable risks. Individuals involved in the project can identify risks often according their experience. Information from published resources is even accessible to determine risks in different areas of application.

The different risk types as per the common sources are mentioned below:

Technical risks – like unverified technology

Risks in project management – like poor allocation of resources or time

External risks – like changing precedence in partner organizations

Organizational risks – like resource problems with different activities

2.6 Developing the strategies for risk response

One cannot mitigate or prepare the probable risks; however risks with high impact and high priority are expected to worth immediate action. The successful planning identifies whether the risk decreases or increases for the objectives of a project. Following are the available strategies for risk responses;

Avoidance: modifying the plan of project in order to reduce risk or safeguard the objectives from its influence. Utilizing a recognizable technology in spite of an innovative one is example of avoidance.

Transference – changing the risk management and its consequence to the third party. The transfer of risk always entails premium payment to the party enchanting on risk. Contract for services of consultants who are offered with fixed price is considered as an example for transference.

Mitigation – diminishing the consequence and/or probability of an undesirable risk event to a satisfactory threshold. Considering the early actions is more successful than attempting to repair the results after the happening of risk. To augment the financial resources of a provided project by means of searching for additional partners in project is an example of mitigation.

Acceptance – coming to a decision that project plan will not be changed to deal with the occurred risk. No action is required by the passive acceptance. An active acceptance can entail enhancing the contingency plans for taking plan of action. Producing a list of qualified instructors and who can be called up for replacing them in last minute for the requirement of project is considered as an example of active acceptance (HRDC, 2003).

2.7 Features of an effective project

In support to the application process, it is clear to define objects of any project, require partnerships with companies of same objectives as well as a thorough plan for the project. Such an accomplishment will lay a basis for its success, following traits must be considered as the features for an effective project (HRDC, 2003).

Clear objective: An effective project requires clearly mentioned objectives

Project plan: A cautiously studied plan will serve two main purposes. Initially, it enables everybody to involve understanding and carrying out their work part of project. It represents the responsibility of people involved and anticipates how much equipment, people, time and money will be needed for the competition of project. Secondly, it acts as a tool for monitoring, enabling the individuals to take appropriate actions to face the upcoming problems.

Communication: Generally, a project is considered as a combined effort among organization and individuals involved. It is essential for them to work together so as to sustain a continuous and effective communication among different parties.

Managed scope: Several issues can take place in the project and many of them may not add to the on the whole objectives. To stay focused is a significant priority with some amount of time or attention wasted.

Support of stakeholder: typically, projects entail different stakeholders who invest resources and time in the project. Maintaining support from stakeholder all the way through project is significant so that the team of project can meet the proposed objectives.

2.8 Implementation of ERP in Business

For this the examples of successful and failed ERP projects are considered.

Organization with successful ERP: The successful stories of ERP will expose that they were made potential by means of planned and hard work. The evaluation of defense enterprise planning and enterprise planning resources are the significant tasks in present context. The success stories of ERP do not essentially means that a company requires to be competed with what they have attained. They should think of enlarging the capacity of enterprise functions so that several and by this means maintain a role model for achieving the success stories of ERP. Generally, the success stories illustrate how the organizations are being facilitated by ERP to attain their milestones. It can be explained in different ways. They say that the existing steps are needed to be considered in an organization to reach utmost ERP benefits.

WinManp controlling the Athena, this organization is a good example as well as an existing proof to validate the fact considering the steps that an organization requires to acquire and is not supposing that a more ERP implementation will offer essential impetus for organizational success.

The main factor for organizational success of WinMan is supported since it is believed that software is considered as a means and not regarded as a solution for the problems raised in enterprise. This is supported by the information that the organization effectively merged the business practices with the software nuances. Such a process took place when the organization faced crucial time that s when they experienced a unexpected depreciation of profits.

This organization had an effective partnership with the Win Map software in order to set free the solutions of the organization. The affable work environment between the two existed over any disasters. These organizations experienced an augment in the profit levels as well as different business aspects like cost reduction, inventory management etc. The figures and facts were astonishing and would not have occurred when the organization had not utilized the result like a dais for exploiting their greatest and understanding the main mistake of not bring into line with software by means of business process (ERP, 2008).

2.9 Organization with unsuccessful ERP Implementation

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is a process utilized globally by several organizations. Such system can assist and organize the organization that requires determining novel solutions in order to meet all the necessities. Even though, the organizational process utilized effectively for the successful implementation of ERP. At the same time, an unsuccessful implementation of ERP can occur because of various reasons and can happen too any sort of organization. One of the reasons is that minimum sixty percent of all ineffective implementation of ERP is because of inadequate planning. Also the best organizational plans can go off track and such condition can be accepted by most of them. The ineffective implementation of ERP is mainly due to lack of willingness, lack of plan to become flexible with particular plans associated. Flexibility is mainly the significant key to an important program to work with the necessities of an organization and to meet their necessities.

From the initiation of a project, often the organization creates a timetable and budget. One may staunchly adopt such plans and do not compensate them from the occurring problems. There are several problems which may happen during accomplishment of a project and these should possess a flexible budget and schedule hence determining the implementation of ERP.

When the resources are provided to deploy ERP this may rigidly result in project failure. In initial stages of a project, an organization may not invest adequate money as well as decline to make some changes. Also a small project of ERP can be completed in twenty five thousand dollars, and an organization not interested to spend such money must avoid the process of searching. It generates a pressure in the consultants who try to set up the software and employees who try to maintain all smoothly moving.

For the successful and unsuccessful implementation of ERP one main reason is flexibility. An ineffective implementation of ERP is mainly due to firm, inflexible and rigidity in their plan or timeline. For controlling an organization many questions rise and such are not anticipated in principle nor can they be planned. Think that a programmer who enhances a mononucleosis case and cannot work longer on that. Such project is considered as default. The organization struggling from bit flexibility in programming the difficulty can be removed and hence can avoid the successful implementation of ERP. There exist several reasons for successful implementation of ERP; however the main reasons are combined to a rigid attitude of budget and planning. The organizations possessing successful ERP have flexible planning (Matt D Murren, 2011).

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

3.1. Overview

This chapter examines the principles of methods, rules and postulates for research methodology. Basically, people think that research is the process of gathering the information but according to Wayne, G. and Stuart, M. (2007), research is just about answering the unanswered questions which are not answered earlier. In this particular researcher, researcher makes use of huge amount of secondary information and this study is mostly carried out depending on the secondary data. Mostly the research is limited with various constraints such as time, flexibility, etc. Thus, it can be said that this section guides the reader about the way researcher identifies the information for the research project.

3.2. Types of Data

In general, data is defined as the raw information where this information can be gathered through various methods known as data types. Mostly the structure for a research can be predictable based on the type of data. Research can be successfully completed only when the information collected for the study is accurate. So to carry out the research, the researcher needs to depend more on the data that exists from different sources. Further it enlightens that for any research, first and foremost aspect that needs to be considered is the different types of the information which are helpful in assessing and further understanding the business activities. Basically, researcher can collect the data in different ways and mostly these types are categorized into two types, which are (Fredrick G. Crane, 2009):

Primary data type
Secondary data type
3.2.1. Primary Research

Primary data basically concentrates more on the research objectives and focus mostly on solving the research aim and objectives. The information collected through this type is gathered only for the present study by interacting with the various respondents and takes their opinions, motivations, etc. based on the goals of the research. Information through this type can be collected through various methods like personal interview, observation method, telephone interview, executive interview, self administrative questionnaires, etc. (Panneerselvam, R., 2004). Some of the benefits that are provided by the primary data type are (Blurt, n.d):

There are numerous ways for gathering the information.
It includes a large population and wide geographical coverage.
It’s cheap and doesn’t require any prior arrangements.

Thus, it can be said that primary data is referred as the better way as it provides a realistic view to the researcher about the research and also the topics under consideration. However, even this type has some drawbacks such as (Blurt, n.d):

Includes some design problems like in what way the surveys need to be designed, etc.
Questions must be prepared simple.
Some participants fail to provide responses within the time period.
There is chance that the data send by respondents are fake or it may cover the fact.
Hence, primary research is useful for the researchers in gathering the information for the research but researchers need to takes some steps to eradicate the problems that are faced through this method.

3.2.2. Secondary Research

Information gathered through this type is considered as the backup data since it is collected through various secondary resources such as research study, journals, online books, etc. Simply this data is defined as the information that is collected for some other purposes. Mostly, this type is used in study to understand the basic necessities for conducting the research. Some of the advantages that are offered by this research type are (Slideshare, 2011):

Easy to gather the data when compare to primary data.
Consumes less time.
Longitudinal study may be possible.

Mostly the secondary research linked with the convergent and divergent methods. So within these two methods, researcher makes use of only one method among these two methods for the current study. These two methods are just the thinking skills where both include the important aspects such as intelligence, problem solving and critical thinking.

3.2.2.1. Convergent method

Here, this method enables the researcher to bring both facts and data together from different resources. Once the data is gathered these were applied logically and with that knowledge the problems were solved and can easily achieves the research objectives by making informed decisions. The main benefit of selecting this method is that it comes up with a correct answer that is the information that is provided will be in a clear and precise way and also encourages the people in learning the research in a direct path (Sarah Lipoff, 2011). Thus, from this context it can be stated that it is an approach which allows the researcher to think in a wider way in selecting the resources. Even though this process consumes more time yet the results obtained through this method are accurate.

3.2.2.2. Divergent method

Another method is divergent method where it allows the researcher to just think outwards instead of thinking inward while gathering the information for the research. It’s just an ability which develops the original and unique thoughts of a researcher and then comes up with a solution for a particular problem or else attains the research objectives (Problem Solving Techniques, 2011). This method permits the researcher to learn the research through their creative ideas so it indirectly encourages the researcher to take risks, learn how to be flexible and also to make use of their imagination. Thus, it can be stated that this method allows the researcher to think in a creative way for solving a particular problem in the research.

Hence, secondary research mainly enables the researcher to gather the data from various secondary resources. Collecting the information from these resources can be achieved through either a convergent method or divergent method.

3.3. Type of Research chosen for current study

For the present study, secondary research has been selected as the suitable data type for the research as this study more concentrates on the risks faced within the small to medium sized enterprises and also the increasing success in these enterprise system integration within these enterprises. Primary research is not suitable for this research since researcher may fail to identify the accurate data on the risks that are faced by the enterprises as mostly these were kept more confidential in order to compete with the other organizations. Within this secondary research, it’s better to prefer the convergent method for gathering the data from various secondary resources. Since this convergent method allows the researcher to first identify the research problem and then gathers the information accordingly and further it was applied to that particular problem. Mainly the researcher converge all the related resources onto solving the problem at hand. This way mainly preferred by the scientists and mathematicians. This convergent process permits the researcher to narrow down the search and recognizes the best chances for success (Sheena, 2010). So, in this manner the information is gathered for the present research and in order to clearly analyze the research in an effective manner, two organizations were being considered in current study where in which one organization selected is a successful enterprise systems and other is an unsuccessful enterprise systems. Two firms are being selected in order to analyze the risks that are being faced by the organization and how effectively each of the firm attained their stability in the real time environment. Two firms selected for the present study belongs to a UK IT Small and Medium Enterprise systems are illustrated below:

BIW Technologies
Richlyn Systems Limited
BIW Technologies

BIW Technologies is generally a privately held British company offering supply chain integration services to its consumer’s right from its establishment. The management of these technologies deploy, host and manage the access to SaaS applications from centrally managed facilities. The core services of this organization were developed in partnership with the UK universities, government and various other construction industry clients, contractors and professionals. Right from its establishment, the growth of the firm has been increasing rapidly and became the accepted market leader during the year 2003 and further strengthened its position over next two years. In 2006, it even won the prestigious Building Entrepreneur of the Year award for its achievements and also due to its adoption of systems continued it’s accelerate into a period of sustained profitability (BIW technologies, n.d). As of every organization, even this firm has been facing some risks due to uncertainties in project failures, financial market, disasters and natural causes. However, this firm stabilized all the risks that are mostly occurred in the firm through the implementation of project management techniques. Presently, there are various project management techniques but mostly PRINCE2 technique is being used by this firm as it is a process driven method of project management that contrasts with all the reactive or adaptive methods developed by Office of Government Commerce. Basically this project management includes various steps such as planning, initiating the project, directing the project, controlling the stage, managing the product delivery, managing stage boundaries, and finally closing the project. Thus, with this project management BIW Technologies manages the risks before its occurrence and also to further improve its growth globally. Because of all these reasons, BIW Technologies is considered as the successful enterprise systems in the present study.

Richlyn Systems Limited

It is a UK based software and website development company. This organization was introduced during the year 1983 and has being providing website solutions and bespoke systems to its client base. Richlyn systems have made superb reputation for the software it has developed and its close working relationships with its clients. This firm developed and introduced a Property Integrated Management and Accounting System (PIMS), and now-a-days it is regarded as one of the best in the industry by most of its clients. Right from its establishment, this organization continuing its development in innovative systems and further improves its growth gradually. For instance, some of the latest additions that were integrated to its bespoke software portfolio are Integrated Paint Manufacturing System, Stock Control and Order Processing and Accounting System. Based on the requests of numerous clients, this firm formed a website development team during the year 2003 in order to provide quality data driven websites for operating client’s data in a real time environment (Richlyn systems, n.d). As this firm expanding its team of developers for providing a wide range of products and services for their clients, Richlyn systems improving its growth but the management failed to stabilize their growth level because of various risks that that are mostly occurred in the organization. Although this company has taken various steps to reduce the risks, the risk management fails to identify their risks before its occurrence and even unable to categorize the risks based on the probability of its occurrence. It’s very necessary for every firm to know the potential threats that mostly occur during the project apart from reaching its objectives since these risks may reduce their growth and even its stability in maintaining its value in the market. Due to this reason, this firm is referred as the unsuccessful enterprise system integration projects.

3.4. Summary

This section is considered as the main part in the research as the total research can be absolute only if the selected methodology is proper to execute the functionalities in a right direction. Mostly this methodology deals with the critical justification of the chosen approach since there are numerous methods involved in the current market. In this research, secondary data type has been selected in which further convergent method has been chosen for collecting and accurate information for the research by reviewing numerous secondary resources. The method selected in this research is very helpful for the researcher as it enables them to obtain the accurate result for the research with proper facts.

Chapter 4: Results

4.1. Overview

This section illustrates the facts that are gathered through the convergent method and produces the precious information for the readers. Examiner first analyzes the result of the research by clearly examining the gathered data from various resources on the two organizations. Later, the performances of both the firms were compared and highlight the importance of implementation of PRINCE2 project management techniques in their firms.

4.2. Analysis

Researcher selected the convergent method in current study in order to identify the importance of PRINCE2 project management technique in an IT industry. Here, the researcher selects two UK Small and Medium Enterprises related to IT firms. These organizations are chosen based on the implementation and lack of PRINCE2 project management techniques. Two UK firms selected in this research are BIW Technologies and Richlyn Systems limited where BIW Technologies implements the PRINCE2 project management technique where as the other firm that is Richlyn Systems doesn’t implement any type of project management techniques and just concentrates on providing services to their clients and leads to creation of various risks within the firm. Performances of both the firms are being discussed below:

4.2.1. BIW Technologies

BIW Technologies is one of the UK’s leading providers of web-based construction collaboration systems and have won the Entrepreneur of the Year award in the industry during the year 2006 Oscars, the building awards. It was being awarded in front of a 1500 audience for a wide spread adoption of its technologies across the UK construction businesses. Over past five years, this firm has been improving from its strength to strength. During the past five years, the turnover of this organization is raised to 33% by not content with concerning 25% share of a market for an internet-based information exchange within the construction industries. This raise is due to long back of relationship with the great and good of clients’ world. Colin Smith (BIW chief executive) has said that “we believe collaboration technologies are increasingly a key element in the delivery of today’s construction projects, and we are delighted that our achievements since 2000 have been recognized by this major award” (Entrepreneur, n.d, p.1). BIW is considered as the market leaders based on the independent research carried out by e-business consultancy Compagnia. These specialists said that from their research, it has been proven that this firm has a share of 26.4% in the UK market for construction collaboration systems. This enterprise even had the largest user group (that is 23000) of nine providers, this was revealed when surveyed during the year 2003 in March and even this firm received a higher user rating (that is out of 10, it scored 8.5) between the pure collaboration providers (Market, n.d, p.1). Right from its establishment, this company has been improving its firm gradually in a step by step manner by concentrating on both its mission and vision and along with that it also concentrates on the risks that may occur due to the introduction of new policy in their firm. These organizations faced various risks while introducing the new methodology in their firm yet in these situations also it standardized its level in the market by maintaining a long-term relationship with their clients. All this improvement in the organization is being carried out successfully through the implementation of project management techniques mainly these firm implements a PRINCE2 technique for stabilizing the firm by eliminating all the risks within their limited period. In some cases, the management people even eradicate the risks before its occurrence.

Figure 4.2: Shows the raise of profit during the period of 2007 and 2008 (Profit, n.d, p.1).

From the latest financial figures, it can be seen that BIW Technologies attained the revenues of ?7.3m that covers the 12 months to 30the September 2008. In the year 2007, there was a ?560,000 pre-tax profit on turnover of ?5.7m whereas the latest turnover is higher that is ?8.4m. Thus, BIW Technologies sees a profit double to ?1.1m (Profit, n.d, p.1). Hence, from this analysis on BIW Technologies it can be stated that this organization is improving its growth rapidly through the implementation of project management techniques by reducing the risks and also further improve its share in the market.

4.2.2. Richlyn Systems Limited

It is a UK based website development and software company which developed a Property Integrated Management and Accounting System (PIMS). This developed system was being widely used by most of the companies like HBOS, Valad Property Group, Wykeland property Group, Evan Easyspace and Even Property Group. This company has been enlarging its firm by developing other systems like Integrated Paint Manufacturing System (IPMS) and Integrated Stock Control order Processing and Accounting System (SCOPAC) where these two are the latest additions to its portfolio. Based on the client’s request, the management introduced a website development team in 2003 for operating the client’s information and in 2007 the management developed and maintained the NOGG and FRAX websites based on the requests of Sheffield University. Based on the requests of various clients, different websites are being developed and to maintain these sites a separate team has been formed in this organization. The demand for this firm is more in the present market but the management fails to utilize the opportunity as the introduction of every new scheme evolves some risks and just disturbs all the fields of management and thus in turn reduces its growth. This was mainly due to the lack of handling the risks in a right manner.

Figure 4.1 : Shows the shareholders funds during the year 2009 and 2010 (Annual Accounts, 2010, p.3).

If 2010 balance sheet of Richlyn Systems Limited has been considered for the present research then one can seen the reduce in the growth during the year 2009 and 2010. The net asset during the year 2009 is ?53,385 whereas in the year 2010 its value is reduced to ?33,728. During the year 2009 and 2010, even the share holder funds have been reduced to ?19,657 (Annual Accounts, 2010, p.3). Thus, from this analysis it can be stated that due to lack of implementing the correct project management techniques in the organization, Richlyn systems fails to improve its growth and further even decreasing its share in the market.

4.3. Summary

This section summarizes that implementation of project management techniques like PRINCE2 improves the growth of the firm and even helps the organizations in managing the risks efficiently. Thus, those organizations are referred as the successful enterprise systems integration projects within the UK SME’s. Here, in this research BIW Technologies is considered as the successful organization when compare to other firm (like Richlyn system) as it successfully implements the PRINCE2 technique and improves its growth rapidly.

Chapter 5: Discussion of results

From the above results it can be said that a project management is enhanced by means of successful implementation of project management and risk management that is the integration of enterprise system with various tools and technologies into the Small and medium Enterprises. There are set of questions which are required to be addressed in critical analysis of risk management techniques: what are the different ways to reduce risk for attaining a successful organization; how they can be dealt; what are the different methodologies adopted in risk management; how to deal with the provided confined data;

At the same time there are other issues to be addressed they are: How the project management techniques are utilized in the present project; how the risks are reduced by the integration of enterprise systems; how the successful implementation of ERP is achieved in the organization.

These above questions are well illustrated in the literature and how well they are useful for achieving the objectives of the project. On the other hand, some research methods are being followed in the present project. As the research is confined with several constraints like flexibility and time, the researcher adopted secondary research since it enables them to gather data for various purposes. The project management techniques and risk management techniques are being obtained from the research study, books or journals etc. At the same time unsuccessful and successful implementation of ERP is being obtained from the same. From this it is clear that secondary research helps the researcher to gather data easily which is not even time consuming. Divergent and convergent are the two methods associated with secondary research where one among them is considered. From the obtained results it is assessed that convergent method is adaptable as it helps to identify and search data for effective analysis.

Generally research methods are being adopted to gather data. The research method chosen for this study is secondary research as it focuses on the risks that are faced by SMEs as well as the integration of enterprise systems effectively by the chosen enterprises. It is analyzed that primary research is not applicable for the present research as it is found that researcher may not be successful to recognize the correct information regarding the risks that are being faced by the enterprises. Most of the enterprise data is kept secret so it is not possible to collect data by means of primary research. But with the help of secondary research, it is observed that the convergent method has been selected to gather information from various sources. From the above research methods we observe that the convergent method enables us to recognize the research problem and hence according to that the information is gathered to apply it for the specific problem. All the associated data are converged to solve the problem. From this discussion it is clear that primary research may not be adopted as the secondary research helps to gather data for current study so as to lucidly evaluate the research in a proper way. Therefore, the research methods are considered as the significant part in the process of conducting the research the entire research is found to be accurate when the opted research method is appropriate to carry out the operations. A critical evaluation is made in the research methods for choosing an appropriate approach as there are several methods entailed in present market. A clear analysis of the results is made so as to justify that appropriate research methods are opted for further continuation of research. From the above discussion a critical reflection of the research methods area being shown and the effect of appropriate research method had on the obtained results.

To attain the appropriate results we have taken the help of research methods. For analysing the present research two organizations are considered one among them is an effective enterprise system and other is an ineffective is enterprise system. For evaluating the risks two organizations are being selected and it is assessed that how effectively every organization achieved their firmness in environment of real time. For the present study, two UK organizations which are IT related SMEs are observed they are Richlyn Systems Limited and BIW Technologies. In the results the performances of these two technologies are being compared and emphasized regarding the importance and implementation of project management technique PRINCE2 in the respective organizations. From the research methods, it is clear that a convergent method has been opted for the research so as to determine the significance of project management technique PRINCE2 in the IT based SMEs. These firms are selected as per the lack of implementation of project management technique PRINCE2. This technique is utilized by them to face the risks in an appropriate manner. From the chosen two SMEs the Richyln Systems limited implements the project management technique PRINCE2 and the other firm BIW Technologies does not apply any of the project management techniques but it just focuses on offering different services to its customers and hence leading to generation of numerous risks itself in the firm. For improving its growth rapidly BIW Technologies has successfully implemented the PRINCE2 technique which helps to risks as the organization suffered from handling the risks in appropriate manner. On the other hand, Richyln Systems Limited has enhanced various accounting systems as the request of clients. It even introduced several management websites as per their requests. But it could not reach the client’s demand as it failed to use the chance of all schemes entailing the risks that disturbed the various management fields. Hence lack of project management and lack of project management techniques has let this firm to an unsuccessful implementation of ERP.

Chapter 6: Conclusions

In this dissertation, a clear evaluation is made on the Enterprise systems which highlight the key issues in SMEs. The different ways for enhancing the risk management as well as the project management are being discussed. The present study tries to meet the proposed aims and objectives by evaluating appropriate tools and techniques of both project management and risk management. The conclusions from each chapter are drawn to evaluate whether the aims and objectives of the present study are met.

Firstly, the introduction focuses on briefing the entire project with sufficient data gathered for illustrating and meeting the aims and objectives. It offers a reason for choosing the project which is significant stating the reason for augmenting the success and lessening the risks entailed in the enterprise systems including enterprises SMEs. It articulates a clear idea of the organizational success and it even offers an encouragement helping the researcher to carry on the program on a smooth tract. It is achieved by implementing and scheduling time for moderately achieving the success at the end.

Secondly, the chapter literature review illustrates the various focused areas for completion of the study. Initially, the SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises) are mainly intended for achieving the profits, growth of comprehensive production, innovation and efficiency of the enterprise economy. They help to increase and exploit the social profits as well as facing the greater competition and entrepreneurship. In this chapter the SMEs are compared with the larger organization regarding how they differ from each other to achieve success in their specific markets. The enterprise system integration is achieved by considering the risk management and project management tools and techniques. Next is regarding the risk management which arise in firms whether it could be SMEs or other larger organizations. Risks are mainly considered as the uncertainty that is mainly found in SMEs. For this the stated solution is the risk management which helps to develop the functionalities, ensuring the regulatory compliances, improving the financial stability, prioritizing the resources, and so on. The risk management methodologies are helpful for any organization which entails the planning of risk management, risk identification, analysis of risk, monitoring and controlling of risk. Strategies of risk management help the individuals to identify the risks easily in different types of risks like technical risks, organizational risks, external risks and project management risks. The strategies for risk response are enhanced to reduce the evolving risks in the organization. The available strategies for the risk management are avoidance, transference, mitigation and acceptance. At the same time, project management is being discussed in this chapter which presents an illustration of project management and its technologies. Project management is considered as an ongoing process that requires an appropriate and appreciative environment for contextual project and which balances the inconsistent demands from the available resources and anticipated results. The project management gives a clear vision on the project objective, project plan, communication among the members, scope of project and support from the stakeholders. The different project management techniques are PRINCE2, SCRUM and PMBOK. These techniques are helpful for the SMEs to other larger organizations as they help to achieve in the successful implementation of ERP that is they make easier for the organizations to reduce risks. From these techniques PRINCE2 is chosen in the next chapter.

Thirdly, the chapter of research methods helps to examine different rules, postulates and methods for the continuation of the study. As this research requires confined constraints like flexibility and time, hence it helps to chose suitable research method. Secondary research method is considered as it helps to gather data easily from the resources like books, journals, articles etc. With the help of secondary resources a convergent method is preferred as it helps to easily identify the research aim and search the resources to reach the best opportunities of success. This way the data is gathering for clearly analyzing the research where two firms are considered for evaluating the successful and unsuccessful implementation of ERP. They are chosen to analyze the risks which are being faced and how efficiently managed with the help of project management techniques.

Next is the chapter of results, which is derived from the research methods chapter i.e. two firms are being selected which belongs to UK Information Technology based SMEs. They are BIW Technologies and Richyln Systems Limited which are shown as examples one for successful enterprise system and other for unsuccessful enterprise system. The PRINCE2 project management techniques are adopted by the BIM Technologies which helped the organization to achieve effective profits by lessening the risks. On the other hand, the Richyln Systems Limited has not implemented any of the project management techniques to reduce the risks. It just followed the business as per the request of the clients for better services, as the demands increased it could achieve them at the same time it could not diminish the risks entailed in the organization thus inefficient and less profit margins are obtained.

Next is the discussion of the obtained results, it helps to draw the critical analysis from the results that are derived from the literature and other research methods like secondary research including the convergent method. It helps how the results supported to achieve the objects and it even presents a critical reflection of the research methods influencing that had on the attained results. Following this section, the appropriate recommendations are provided for the study.

6.1 Recommendations

In the small and medium enterprises the issues have been increased in the present time. This research has discussed the risks and which project management techniques can be used for increasing the success in the small and medium enterprises. There are various methods which can be used as those are very significant for any kind of organizations. In this every risk has to be identified and the risk has to be described so that can be solved. The overall risk has to be established by the department and there are some vital risks that has to be identified they are the actions and strategies of the risk management treatment, there has to be deadline for the accomplishment of the treatment actions and strategies and for this the department head has to be answerable for the implementation. The organizations have to be prepared for the risks and have to be planned in an aligned manner and have to make sure of the resources that can be allotted. A formal process has to be granted for every key and this is to monitor and review the concerned risks and its management treatments and the organizations have to be ensured that the strategies are effective. In the small and medium enterprises the risks assessments have to be presented so that this will be useful in next time. Before undertaking any kind of project it is very much recommended that the audit in the internal part of the organization must be discussed in terms of purpose of the criteria. In the organization it is very significant that staff has to report to the department head regarding the fraud of the audit, department, evaluation committee in concern with the progress of the implementation of the treatment actions and strategies and the risks that are emerging. These must also be reported to the higher officials and the concerned managers. These risks have to be monitored and have to be planned and managed so that all the required obligations can be cleared. For monitoring the risk management a score card has to be maintained and developed for the progress of the grants.

For some kind of significant risks the department has to identify some steps they are

There has to be a time limit for the accomplishment treatment actions and strategies, the departments head has to be responsible for the accomplishment.

In spite of improving the issues of implementation some issues are still address and these follow after defining the ERP:

The market players ability so that they stay in alter with the ERP
Its services and usages
The requisite for innovating the applications of software
The means and ways in implementing the business applications
To get profit from the same so that it can gain a competitive edge
Well-liked information systems
References
Annual Accounts (2010) “Richlyn Systems Limited”, [internet] available at URL: , [accessed on 20th May 2011].
Bert Hedeman, Gabor Vis van Heemst and Hans Fredriksz (2006), Project Management Based on Prince2, Edition 3, Van Haren Publications.
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Biggs and Tyler (2002), Is Small Beautiful and Worthy of SubsidyLiterature Review, IFC mimeo.
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Brown, Charles, James Medoff and Jay Hamilton (1990), Employers: Large and Small, Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press.
Desheng, D. W. (2010) Modelling Risk Management in Sustainable Construction, Business & Economics, Springer Publishing.
Duncan Haughey (2011) “The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)”, [internet] available at URL: < http://www.projectsmart.co.uk/pmbok.html>, [accessed on 20th May 2011].
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ERP (2008) ERP Success Stories, [Internet] available at URL: , [Accessed on 16th May, 2005].
Fredrick G. Crane (2009) Marketing for Entrepreneurs: Concepts and Applications for New Ventures, SAGE.
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Wayne, G. and Stuart, M. (2007) Research Methodology: An Introduction, 2nd edition, Lansdowne: Juta and Co.Ltd.

Introduction

The use of plastic is now being limited due to environmental concern. In many countries and regions, uses of plastics are restricted as they pollute the air with toxic gases like carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The greenhouse effect from these from these toxic gases are increasing pollution and rising global warming. Nevertheless the use of plastic continues. [1]

Plastic are polymers used for application such as packaging, building materials and commodities. There are mainly two types of polymers: one is naturally occurring polymers which are biodegradable and the other is synthetic polymer which is man-made. [2] Natural polymers are biodegradable and therefore it is observed that it has lesser negative impact on the environment than synthetic polymer.

Definition, Properties and their uses

Synthetic polymers are made artificially from chemical substance in industries. They are non-biodegradable polymers and do not decompose easily. These polymers are produced from non-renewable resources, petroleum by the process polymerization. [3] They have useful properties as they do not react with alkali and acid and they are light but strong. Its shape and color can be altered easily and it is a good insulator of heat and electricity. Due to its properties and as they are cheap, they are used in place of metal, wood and other materials. They are most commonly used as plastic bags. As they are good insulator of heat and electricity they are used for coating wires, they are also used to make cups, bowls, containers, toys, etc.

Even though synthetic polymers are cheap, its resource, petroleum is becoming more and more limited. And a large amount of energy is required to recycle them. Therefore the process of recycling them is not energy efficient. As its resource it finite and it is expensive to recycle them, and it cannot be easily decomposed, scientist introduced a different type of polymer alternative to them. These polymers are more beneficial to use and less harmful to the environment as they are biodegradable, even though they are more expensive.

Natural polymers are biodegradable. They are formed naturally in all living organism, both in plants and animals. [2] They can be made from elements such as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. In animals natural polymers are found in muscles skin, silk, hair, wool and fur. Natural polymers are produced from starch and cellulose from plants and vegetables like potatoes, maize, sugar cane, corn. Complex hydro-carbon polymers can be produced by the help of bacteria and fungi. [4]

Another type of polymer is synthetic biodegradable polymers. These are chemically derived natural polymers, mainly from plants. They are modified to improve the biodegradability and other properties. They can decompose under natural; condition by bacteria or fungi. [1] They can also be degraded biologically with enzymes and other living organism. Biodegradation takes place by the process oxidation, photo degradation, hydrolysis or biotic reaction which is followed by bio- assimilation of the polymer fragments by micro-organisms and their mineralization. [3]

Types of biodegradable polymers:

Natural polymers or biopolymers which exists in plants and animals
Natural polymers from renewable resource monomers synthesized with chemicals
Polymers formed by microorganism and bacteria
Polymers with hydrolysable backbone
Polymer with carbon back bone

There is also petroleum based biodegradable polymer. These are produced from petroleum polymer to increase its biodegradability and to reduce the use of petroleum. These are made by mixing petroleum with starch and other substances so that it can be decomposed by bacteria, light and by other processes where less energy is needed. [1]

Since 1990, synthetic polymers which are completely biodegradable, for example compounds like poly (lactic acid), polypro lactone and poly (hydroxyl butyrate-valerate), have been available commercially. Polymers produced from starch are useful in cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. The use of biodegradable polymers is mainly performed in medical application, agricultural fields and for packaging food and other goods.

In medical application the use of biodegradable polymers are needed for surgical sutures, bone fixation devices, vascular grafts, adhesion prevention, and artificial skin and drug delivery systems. [1]

Polymers are used in agricultural application to improve the condition of the soil and to control the release of pesticides. They are also used for nutrients. [1]

For packaging the quality and the properties of the polymer depends on the type of good which will be packed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Synthetic Polymer and Biodegradable Polymer and their Impact on the Environment

Biodegradable synthetic polymers are now being widely replaced by synthetic polymers even though synthetic polymers cost lesser. This is because synthetic polymers are unfavorable to the environment as they are unable to decompose. As a result they remain in the environment for hundreds of years. This polymer wastage pollutes water and block drainage systems and rivers. This causes flash floods. The populations of mosquitoes increase as these plastic wastages are good breeding spot for the mosquitoes. As a result diseases are spread by them which cause people to have malaria and dengue fever. Therefore number of aquatic animals is reducing due to the pollution made by the synthetic polymers.

Used polymers which are petroleum based are often burned in open space producing poisonous that causes acid rain which disrupts the balance of the environment. These also cause greenhouse effect.

Compare to synthetic polymers, biodegradable synthetic polymer are environmentally friendlier. And the demand for biodegradable polymers is increasing as their costs are falling. People prefer biodegradable polymers as they can decompose or decay naturally and biologically, they are found in large range and its resource is renewable.

Biodegradable polymers also improve agriculture by making the soil more fertile. It can be used to minimize the growth of weeds. It can increase the temperature of the soil and keep a constant level of moist in the soil. This increases the growth rate of the plants and vegetables.

Recently the production of biodegradable polymer is increasing as the demand for sustainable packaging is ascending. Consumers are more interested in eco-friendly products. As a result the demand for petroleum base polymers are descending.

Conclusion:

Even though a huge range of the area is used to grow plants and vegetables to make polymer we can conclude from the above information and an explanation, biodegradable polymers upsets the environmental far less than synthetic polymers.

Reference:
Leon P.B.M. Janssen and Leszek Moscicki (Eds), (2009). Thermoplastic Starch. Wiley-VCH.

http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/states/polymers.html

Introduction

This document examines how the design and construction of Skyscrapers and high-rise buildings effects the environment that these large buildings are situated in, and the environment as a whole, and considers how architects can help meet the energy consumption guidelines that have been set as a benchmark to all Architects to help reduce the consumption of energy produced by fossils fuels, and reduce the waste of other non renewable resources, with improved environmental considerations in this building typology.

In the world today, you cannot go through a single day without reading or hearing about climate change, be it on the news, in the papers or merely in general everyday conversation, and with the climate of our planet becoming an ever more pressing issue, the British government passed a bill called the Climate Change Act 2008, which set a target in 2050 for carbon emissions, which is that the U.K’s carbon emissions should be 80% of the level of what it was in 1990, (Climate Change Act,2008). Buildings alone account for at least 40 percent of primary energy consumed in the U.K (B.R.E, 1978), and it is perceived by many, that building greener will have one of the largest effects on lowering carbon emissions.

From the beginning it should be pointed out that Skyscrapers are one the most un-ecological building classifications, a vast amount of energy is used in the construction of Skyscrapers, and an even greater amount of energy is consumed so in the ordinary running of a typical Skyscraper.

A skyscraper is generally hard to define, in the Oxford Dictionary it is merely defined as ‘a tall building with many storeys’ but in Architectural terms, It is a building perhaps inspired by the height it reaches, and a building that pulls together all of mankind’s technological breakthrough to reach these knew unknown heights in the construction industry. Skyscrapers could never have came into existence without the creation of the modern electric lift, the steel beam, flush toilets and large pieces of glazing to name but just a few constructional innovations this building typology relies on.

Sustainability is a pressing issue in today’s society, with the amount of attainable fossil fuels and other raw materials starting to become increasingly lower, society as a whole must find alternative solutions, and this can ultimately begin with architects.

Sustainability is the practice of meeting the needs of today, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs (Bonenberger,2002) and is defined by the dictionary as being ‘Capable of being continued with minimal long-term effect on the environment’.

Architects design the world that we live in, and can therefore help shape the way we live, and help incorporate sustainable systems of living into all parts of everyday life, at home or the workplace for example, if Architects can design with sustainable living in mind, the concept can make a positive impact in our world.

Large plants, such as cranes, diggers and dumper trucks are all used continuously in the construction of such buildings, producing a large amount of carbon emissions, whilst the materials used in the construction are also transported to the site, sometimes coming from other parts of the world, meaning that even before the completion of the Skyscraper, the building could already have a large carbon footprint. The heating and cooling, basic services and the use of lights in Skyscrapers are what form the main energy consumption in the everyday running of a Skyscraper, and as it requires an immense amount of energy to pump these services and materials to the higher floors of the buildings because of gravity.

Most Skyscrapers built in the 20th century were not designed with thermal performance in mind with often no form of natural ventilation being found in their designs, meaning the buildings are continuously heated in the winter, and then in the summer continuously cooled by having air conditioning systems constantly running to make sure that the building is bearable to all who work there.

Architects have already begun designing Skyscrapers with sustainable blueprints; Wind turbines, solar panels, combined heat and power systems and rainwater reuse are just a few of the ideas that have already been incorporated into the construction of Skyscrapers, and more advance steps are constantly being. To make any real impact on the environment all of the elements attributed to the construction and running of a Skyscraper have to be studied and analysed and eventually changed if we are to create Skyscrapers that are ecologically conscious, if not totally eco-friendly.

Technology however isn’t the whole answer, as Architects we must not be of this persuassion; we should not be tricked into thinking that technology can solve our approach to Ecological design. Ecodesign must consist of a balance, an equilibrium between technology and nature, and for a Skyscraper this will mean creating buildings, to give just one example, as well as being orientated to maximise solar gain are also designed in such a way that the constructions orientation also maximises natural ventilation.

Ecodesign means that environmental aspects should be considered at all stages of the design, consumption of materials used in a building, emissions of pollution from the building and waste production of the construction and the building are three key areas that will ultimately have to be tackled.

Saving and preserving the environment is the main issue that today’s society faces, and although no one group of people can help the cause on their own, I believe no one else can play more of a significant role than architects.

As Architects we also have to begin to understand that changing the way we design and construct buildings (to be more eco-friendly) can not reduce the carbon footprint and the impact on our environment alone, the only way we can truly deliver greener, and cleaner buildings for the environment would be to also change our lifestyles within the building.

1. Background

1.1 Aims

To ascertain whether we can continue to build a high-rise building as we do today and achieve what would be considered an environmentally friendly result or whether changes have to be made and if so, and if possible, where.

1.2 Objectives

1. To examine current construction methods, design and running of modern Skyscrapers to understand what impacts on the environment they make.

2. To discover how renewable energy/ energy saving measure are already currently incorporated into Skyscrapers and high-rise buildings.

3. To determine what changes need to be made to build and create Skyscrapers and high-rise buildings that are more environmentally conscious and ultimately environmentally friendly.

1.3 Methodology

1. To achieve my first and third objectives I intend to research the relevant topics by reading books, journals, government publications and reliable websites, including those of current projects.

2. To achieve my second objective I intend to visit some appropriate case studies in London – The Strata Building for a case study of a new skyscraper that has taken some measures to make itself environmentally conscious – and One Canada Square for an example of a modern skyscraper that doesn’t have any environmental design, to see wherein its problems lie. The case studies will be undertaken by the visit to the site itself and further correspondence via letter, email or telephone will also be conducted.

1.4 Key Definitions

Definition of ‘Sustainable’

In this context of this document ‘sustainable’ is used in the sense of: – ‘capable of being sustained’ meaning that there is little or no long term effect on the environment. (Dictionary.com, 20111)

Definition of ‘renewable energy’

Renewable energy is ‘Any naturally occurring theoretically inexhaustible source of energy, as biomass, solar, wind, tidal, wave and hydro-electric power, that is not derived from fossil or nuclear fuel.’ (Dictionary.com, 200112)

Definition of ‘Eco-design’

In reference to a building ‘Eco Design’ is a building, which has been designed with the environment in mind, and has undertaken significant measures to reduce its impact on the environment with specific attention paid to areas such as consumption of materials during construction, and the emission that the buildings produce.

Definition of ‘bioclimatic’

Bioclimatic refers to the consideration of the relationship between the climate and living organisms. (Dictionary.com, 20113)

2. The Problems With The Construction & Design Of Today’s Common ‘Box’ Skyscraper.

Since the early Twentieth Century Skyscrapers have been built, since the mid twentieth century they have been built in different corners of the planet, but they no matter where, they more often then not have been built without any real concern or thought given to the environment that it is situated in, or the environment as a whole itself. At the time there was no need to think ecologically in design or construction of the skyscraper, the client simply wanted a design that would give them the most profit, maximum floor space to rent out, whilst the architects most important aim was perhaps creating an impressive feat of art with the design of the building, to make it eye catching to all around, a symbol of their work, something they could easily be recognised for.

Now the world as a whole has the future of life, as we know it today, constantly at the forefront of their lives, a change has to be made as we begin to run close to the limits of our natural resources. Skyscrapers require mass amounts of materials and energy to build to such heights; therefore the impacts on the environment need to be a pressing issue from the outset when in the concept stage of design, before the construction process even begins.

Due to forces that effect Skyscrapers, there could ultimately never be one set design for Architects to follow on constructing a eco-friendly building, forces like dead loads (the weight of the fixed structure of the building) and live loads (the loads placed on the structure by its environment, people and furniture inside) could never be accounted for in the design stage to similar levels because of the varying environment in which every skyscraper is situated, no one environment will ever be the same and for the that reason, there can never truly be one set design for every skyscrapers, there can only be principles of design to follow. The impact of the force of the wind has more of an effect on the building than any of the dead or live loads, often to points where orientation of certain facades are changed. As well as with standing winds the building has to be constructed in a way that it is ready for unpredictable forces of nature like Earthquakes because if there is even a small problem in the design of the building the results could be catastrophic.

Whilst it seems obvious from the outset that no one ‘set’ guideline for the design of the Skyscraper could be set, guidelines on components/technology, and strategies of design for the building could provide a positive impact into the design of each Skyscraper.

Raw materials play a key role in the construction of skyscraper as reinforced concrete in one of the main components of the buildings design. In more modern time it is more natural to see concrete and steel used together as it combines the two materials strengths to maximise the structural support it offers, whilst often taking less floor space to place, as the steel reinforcement sits in-situ in the concrete beam. Concrete is naturally very strong under compressive forces, whilst steel (an alloy of iron and carbon) is also inherently strong under the same forces (Hall, 2008).

Although steel is readily available, it takes a vast amount of energy to produce, and can often be an expensive business with the price of iron ore, a main component of steel, rapidly rising, it could easily become too expensive to use on such large scales in the future. Recently carbon fibre has often been incorporated into projects (for example aeroplanes) that would usually require steel and the attributes it brings – high strength, stiffness and lightweight – because it is a much cheaper alternate, it may not be long until the industry see’s carbon fibre taking more of a role in the construction of skyscrapers. Not only is the production of these materials highly energy consuming, they also require a large amount of toxic chemicals too make them attractive, fireproof and waterproof.

Large skyscrapers that are constructed with a mainly glass facade are in particular extremely high energy wasters, with heat loss (or gain) up to ten times greater through a typical half inch plate of glass compared to that of a typical masonry construction filled with insulation. (Popfun, 2009)

It is not only the materials and construction of Skyscrapers that have a lasting impact on the environment; the actual everyday running of the modern box skyscraper also has quite an impact. The typical 20th century box skyscraper was often designed with poor thermal performance and with out the use of natural air ventilation systems the buildings are commonly too cold in the winter and too warm in the summer for people in the buildings to feel comfortable within so heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) units are regularly installed in the constructions. These HVAC systems require a vast amount of energy to run, as theses services have to be pumped up and around the building through services ducts against the force of gravity, meaning the higher the skyscraper, the more energy it takes to operate these systems.

In the 1970’s it was believed that replacing the large all glass facades of the skyscraper with smaller, sealed windows would reduce energy consumption caused by heating the structures because it would stop the loss of heat and air conditioning to the outdoor world, this however resulted in poorly ventilated buildings which resulted in a higher demand on the air conditioning units to run the services at the correct level to provide a comfortable internal environment. (Gissen, 2003)

However the effects and impacts of the air conditioning units often installed in skyscrapers are well documented and sometimes they can make the internal conditions worse instead of improving them. Sick building syndrome is usually accredited to air conditioning units (as well as other heating and ventilation systems), the lack of oxygen, and high levels of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are generally believed to be the main cause. (Habmigren, 2003) If a building does develop sick building syndrome than occupants will often fall ill, with varying symptoms ranging from irritation of the eyes, nose, throat to general health problems and skin irritation.

Another problem caused by the design of skyscrapers, all though less of an environmental issue at first glance, can have knock on effects on the environment. “Towers are always fighting against their own weight. As more parts of the building are devoted to holding it up, they encroach on the space for working or living in. Developers and leasing agents refer to the ratio between these two elements as a building’s “net-to-gross”. In a really efficient skyscraper, nearly 70% of the building’s volume is useable, with the rest taken up by lift-shafts, stairwells and pillars. In a well designed low-rise building, by contrast, more than 80% of the space can be sold or let.” (Economist, 2006) With these companies moving out of the city to office complexes for financial issues, it is leaving an increasing amount of unused office space in these skyscrapers, whilst more new skyscrapers are being built. 40% of the world’s tallest buildings have been built since the year 2000 (Economist, 2006) but many skyscrapers have been left with empty office space, simply because of the cost of running the building or because of an outdated look.

Many of the problems too the environment caused by the Skyscraper typology are caused by designing to maximise the economic benefits of the building, increasing rent per square meter of floor space, instead of being designed with the environment in mind.

3. Theories of Change

3.1 Design Principles

When some Architect decide that in their project they are going to be ‘Building green’ they often become reliant on solely using technology such as solar panels and wind harvesting machines to reduce their buildings impact on the environment, but the future of building green, and building constructions that really make an impact on reduce effects on the environment instead of just being sustainable, will rely upon designers and manufactures finding greener and more rapidly renewable products to use during the construction process, and for the actual construction itself.

Building environmentally friendly buildings should in practice bring together different principles to reduce the impact on the buildings surrounding natural environment, taking full advantage of renewable energy sources, the key design practices to follow are; using passive design theories for layouts of buildings to maximise solar gain and natural ventilation, design and material use efficiency, designing with low-energy consumption in mind, water management systems and waster reduction.

It can be hard to define a green or environmentally friendly product, what makes it green, is it one feature, or manyIs it made from recycled materials, or is it made from rapidly renewable sourced materials for example bamboo. ‘It is important also to note that multiple criteria often apply—in other words, a product may be considered green for more than one reason.’ (Alex Wilson, 2000).

An environmentally friendly product is a product that has minimal effect on the environment that it is harnessed from, and the environment it is to be placed upon. It is a material that comes from a naturally replenished source, and is a material that hasn’t had any harmful toxins applied to it.

The main philosophy behind the green building concept is to practice more environmentally friendly construction methods. In theory building green should be more than just beneficial to the environment, it could also be a practice of value to the economic and society itself.

If you were to speak to different Architects and asked them what methods of design they believed would help reduce the carbon footprint of Skyscrapers, and there general overall effect on the environment, most would jump straight to a form of eco-friendly technology for example, a way of providing energy for the building on site, but the first thought of the Architect should be a form of eco-friendly design, a design method, instead of simply designing to incorporate a product of sustainable design, for instance, solar panels.

As stated previously, not only the construction of the skyscraper has to change, but also the day to day running of the buildings must change to reduce the overall effect on the environment by the construction.

Perhaps the most influential Architect in this field of architectural design, Ken Yeang, states in his book Eco Skyscrapers, about what he believes to be the five most fundamental methods of design that produce the same level of internal comfort that inhabitants of skyscrapers are accustomed to, but from low energy design. The five methods of designs he believes can lead us to a more ecological design for the skyscraper typology are; Passive Mode, Mixed Mode, Full Mode, Productive mode and Composite mode (a method compromising of design aspects from all of the preceding methods). Yeang states that ‘Designing for low energy means looking first at Passive Mode strategies, then mixed mode to full mode, Productive mode and to composite mode, while adopting progressive strategies to improve comfort conditions relative to external conditions while minimising demand on non renewable sources of energy’. (Ken Yeang, 2007 1).

Passive mode design (sometimes referred to as bioclimatic design) is designing with local conditions in mind to optimise the harvesting of surrounding natural energy sources, for example wind power. Mixed mode design is the design principal in which architect will incorporate some form of electrical equipment into the building design, which will enhance the conditions within the building, which obviously lead us to full mode, which is the complete integration of electrical equipment in the building, for management of the conditions for the complete year. (B.R.E, 2011)

Productive mode however, means that the building itself is the foundation of the buildings energy system; the building has for example, wind turbines, or photo-voltaic’s included within the design of the building, to provided the required electricity for the construction on site. Productive mode architecture however requires advanced technology to run the systems, requiring energy and resources to produce the materials used for the solar panels or wind turbines, although in the long run you have less impact on the environment, there is still a considerable ecological impact at the start of the process. (Ken Yeang, 2007 2)

Lastly, Composite Mode is a production of combining all fore-mention processes; it is a balance between the natural design methods of comfort control used in a passive design and the integration of electro-mechanical systems. The proportion of the combined system in use will change throughout the year because of the ever-changing climate.

Although in terms of a modern day skyscrapers a design method of the full mode approach commonplace, this wasn’t always the case. The skyscrapers that helped coin the term, up to about the end of The Second World War were designed with an astonishing series of passive mode principles, on skyscrapers in Manhattan workers were able to make use of sky gardens incorporated in their buildings, whilst all working space was within 27 feet of windows which could be opened, allowing the works to be in control of their conditions at work (David Gissen, 2003 2) but with the creation of long span steel beams and air conditioning units, the focus of architects turned to how they could provide their clients with more rentable floor space, and less attention was aimed at creating comfortable work conditions naturally and with energy consumption in commercial buildings and single family houses accountable for almost 40% of all the energy used in today’s society (David Lloyd Jones, 1998) methods of passive design offer a direct link back to more energy efficient design in skyscrapers.

3.2 Orientating a Skyscraper to maximise natural conditions.

In design we can use Orientation of skyscrapers to maximise more than just solar gain, if orientated correctly, the building could make use of natural ventilation to control indoor comfort levels, and technology for solar energy, or solar water heating systems could be incorporated into the skyscrapers designs to help increase the buildings sustainability.

Although skyscrapers often rise out and above the buildings surrounding them, lending them solely to the sun, it is still important for the orientation of a Skyscraper to still be considered. The Facades with the most glass should be facing towards the direction of the sun as often as possible, so the facades with the most glazing on should be facing North and South, to help maximise solar gain (EcoWho, 2011). A building can be orientated up to about 20° and still harness the same amount of solar gain, whilst opening the build up to the possibility of being ventilated naturally by the wind. Natural ventilation is seen as desirable for the following reasons;

Increased comfort in hot-humid periods
For health reason to provide sufficient oxygen
For better environmental awareness, reducing reliance on mechanical means of ventilation. (Ken Yeang, 1996 1).

In recent design proposals Ken Yeang – the leader in the Eco Skyscraper field – has proposed adjustable openings/ sieves atop of his constructions, suggesting that the walls of a skyscraper should be seen and designed as adjustable instead of just totally sealed. He suggests in his book ‘The Skyscraper Bio-climatically Considered’ that the walls ‘should act like a filter that has variable parts to control cross ventilation’ (Ken Yeang, 1996 2). If the building could be orientated to take advantage of the prevailing wind direction as well as to maximise solar gain, then the entire comfort level of the building could be directly reliant on controlling the variable parts of the buildings outer-skin, reduce the use of mechanical heating and ventilation systems drastically, ultimately cutting down on the long-term effect on the environment. It is believed that a correctly orientated, passive solar, building will reduce it’s energy consumption by up to 40 percent, combine this with correct level of insulation within the skyscraper and the savings on energy consumption could be even higher.

3.3 Designing To Minimise The Urban Heat Island Effect

Skyscrapers are the product of city living, building up to save landmass, whilst producing more homes to house the cities ever growing population. Temperatures are often hotter in a City than they are in rural areas too, this is because of a phenomenon known as the urban heat island effect. (Mcgrath, 2008) “The term “heat island” describes built up areas that are hotter than nearby rural areas. The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1.8–5.4°F (1–3°C) warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as 22°F (12°C). Heat islands can affect communities by increasing summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality.” (E.P.A, 2011). If designers can reduce the heat island effect, then we can also reduce the demands on air conditioning units in the summer, and there are three main ways that Architects or even town planners can design to help reduce the heat island effect.

Planting trees and vegetation, and designing green roofs for new buildings can help reduce the need for heating and cooling systems use. A green roof can reduce the temperatures of a roof surface, and the air surrounding it by up to 50°c. (Liu, K.; Baskaran, B. 2003) A green roof reduces the need for conditioned buildings because it forms insulation for the roof. As well as reducing the heat of the surrounding area to help lower the urban heat island effect, green roofs can offer more to Skyscrapers and the community as a whole, providing habitats for many species whilst, if designed correctly, adding aesthetic value to a project, whilst also being a natural solution to the problems caused by green house gases.

3.4 Vertical Landscaping

Vertical landscaping is not only seen to be key to helping reduce the skyscrapers environmental impact, but it is also seen as being key to improving the aesthetics of the typology and comfort levels within the interior.

The issue with designing Skyscrapers that are vertically landscaped is that they are a construction formed from floors being stacked upon each other, ever increasing their distance from ground level (where the earths vegetation is located) (Ken Yeang, 1996 3). Part of the effect a skyscraper has on its environment is to the sites ecology. It is not often that a skyscraper isn’t located next to another skyscraper or high-rise building, and it just as infrequent that a skyscraper is located next to some area of vegetation, so if a skyscraper is built, the sites surrounding ecology that it is built upon is often totally destroyed.

Normally landscaping is carried out on horizontal planes, on the outside of the building, in gardens or on roof gardens. The skyscraper requires a solution of planting vertically. It is possible to create a good ecology from planting vegetation in no more than 600mm of soil, meaning the loads imposed on the building will not be so excessive that they can not be accommodated for.

The incorporation of Vertical landscaping for low to medium rise buildings is already well developed – the use of roof planting, green roofs and planter boxes is a common site, but on the scale of a skyscraper site is dramatically less frequent. The benefits of vertical landscaping a skyscraper are considered to be (amongst others);

The improvement of the ecology of the area by counteracting the mass of the skyscraper, therefore contributing to the sites ecological approach.
Enhances the aesthetics of the construction as a foliaged structure.
The foliage helps minimise heat reflection and glare off/into the building
The vegetation forms a sound barrier, serve as windbreakers and reduce pollution on site by absorbing carbon dioxide and monoxide. (Ken Yeang, 1996 4)

Looking at these theories of change through this chapter; The design principles – with passive mode designing, orientating a Skyscraper to maximise natural interior climatic conditions, minimising the urban heat island effect and Vertical Landscaping, it is clear to see that a substantial improve can be made to the environmental impact that a skyscraper has on it’s immediate environment, and the environment on a whole without the use of any mechanical systems.

4. Technology

This section takes a look at the most appropriate methods of sustainable energy solutions for a Skyscraper to incorporate into its design. As a result of the small footprint of the skyscraper typology, it is hard to incorporate many methods of sustainable design that are available, however there are more than enough options still available to the modern Skyscraper to make a significant contribution to the energy requirements of these superstructures. The main forms of sustainable energy open to the majority of Skyscraper are; Ground Source Heat Pump systems, Solar Panels (PV Cells), Solar Water Heating systems, Biomass and Wind Turbines.

4.1 Ground Source Heat Pumps

Ground Source Heat Pumps (GSHP) are regularly used in modern home as a source of sustainable/renewable energy. A ground source heat pump system uses a system of pipes buried under the ground (using the earth as a heat source in the winter, or a heat sink in the summer) to heat a building (Energy Saving Trust, 2011). The system works by pumping a mixture of water and anti-freeze through the pipes, which absorbs the heat in the earth, and then is pumped into a heat exchanger in the heat pump. GSHP systems have a variety of different set ups, meaning that you could integrate the scheme into the design of a skyscraper in a variety of ways.

GSHP systems have the ability to be laid in various different ways; Vertically down in the ground, horizontally laid in the ground or in an open loop system (also referred to as a groundwater heat pump system) (GreenSpec,2010).

The horizontal form of GSHP systems is the option usually incorporated when used for a housing scheme. The horizontal loops for a house can have a surface area of up to 200m for just a single dwelling, so a system for a skyscraper would require a surface area that would be far greater than this, laid in trenches that would require more square meters than the site the skyscraper would be built on, make this system incredibly hard to incorporate, and an expensive form of sustainable energy.

If the skyscraper being design in question is located next to a source of water, for example a pond/lake then a system that could possibly be used is a ‘slinky loop’ system. The loop is placed in a frame and sunk to the bottom of a pond/lake. The problem with using a system like this is that it would require the sinking of a large loop at the bottom of the pond and it is vary rare because of ground conditions that a skyscraper will be located next to a water source that is large enough to provide suitable conditions for the system to be able to be implemented.

A vertical system is a closed loop of pipes running down into the ground up to about 100m deep depending on the ground characteristics of the site. A vertical system would be easier to incorporate into the design of a skyscraper because of the limited space a skyscraper lay upon. The Vertical system is laid using a series of boreholes roughly five meters apart. This way the system can be laid at the same time as the superstructures pile foundations, whilst the loops could even run down the same bore holes of the pile foundations. Out of the three methods of GSHP systems studied here this is the most efficient system that could be incorporated into a modern skyscraper design.

The carbon savings of a GSHP system however are only minimal if a form of renewable electricity doesn’t drive the system, so if the system is ran from in this manner than the high installation costs could not be truly justified (GreenSpec, 2010).

4.2 Solar Panels

Solar panels are now everyday use for renewable energy sources, ranging from entire facades of skyscrapers, to small installations put up by small homeowners themselves.

Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity using solar cells (Which are similar to large conductors), this process is known as the photovoltaic effect (Solar Panel Info, 2005).

In Manchester, England, in 2007 the CIS Tower was retrofitted with entire facades of solar panels erected on part of the building and although there are over 7000 Solar panels now on the building, the solar panels (and 24 small wind turbines located atop the building) only produce up to 10% of the buildings entire energy consumption. (Hank Green, 2007) This will be the common problem faced by most skyscrapers when introducing large areas of Solar panels in their designs; the panels simply do not produce enough energy to be a viable option on their own, even if you clad entire facades. Solar panels are obviously reliant on the amount of sunlight direct at the panels through out the day, so if you were to clad a facade, the orientation needs to be considered to ensure that the facade chosen is the facade that will receive the most direct sunlight however advances in the technology used to run solar panels mean that even on cloudy days the panels can now be energy efficient, and still produce a large amount of energy, whilst solar panel are increasingly becoming a cheaper form of providing constructions with sustainable energy resources.

A skyscraper proposed in Dubai – The Burj Al Taqa ‘The Energy Tower’ – will produce one hundred percent of it’s own energy through the use of solar panels and wind a 60 meter wind turbine (becoming the first 100% renewable energy powered skyscraper if completed). However, the building will be clad in 15,000sq meters of solar panels, whilst another 17,000sq meters of solar panels will power the building from off site – most skyscrapers do not have the ability or near by free land to locate such an installation (Ali Kriscenski, 2007).

Solar panels, although as mentioned before, are constantly lowering in price, whilst their life spans are always increasing with better research and technology. At the moment solar panel have a life span of up to twenty-five years (Solar Panel Info, 2008); meaning any facades will be subject of major restoration works every twenty-five years to replace every panel, whilst in the mean time the Solar Panel will require constant maintenance because require cleaning regularly for them to work at an efficient rate.

If combined with other methods of sustainable energy production then the use of solar power can contribute to helping skyscrapers reach a much more renewable based system of energy production, and if perhaps a collection of skyscrapers can have a small solar farm located near by, they may be able produce a surplus of energy that they could feed back to the national grid.

4.3 Biomass

Biomass is a form of energy produced from the burning of living/recently living organisms (most often then not derived from plants). Although the burning of the plant matter releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere still, it is not adding more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere because plants are being replanted at the rate they are being consumed, therefore biomass takes carbon out of the atmosphere while it is growing and returns it as it is burned. Biomass is different to fossil fuels because of this shorter time scale in rejuvenation of matter (Biomass Energy Centre, 2008).

Biomass works three various different ways – with a thermal conversion, chemical conversion or biochemical conversion processing system, with the most typical being the thermal conversion system powering a combine heat and powering system.

The main problem with a biomass system producing the power for a skyscraper is again with the space required. A biomass system requires the site to have a Biomass storage facility located on or close to the site so that materials could easily be moved to the site of the conversion chamber with minimal ecological impact, whilst a site producing the biomass material needs to be within a short distance so that again there is minimal impact on the environment on the transportation of the material from the site it is grown, to the site of the skyscraper.

It is possible if the energy centre is located close enough to the skyscraper, a biomass powered combine heat and power system could help produce a significant percentage of the buildings power on site.

4.4 Wind turbines

Wind turbines offer the most apparent form of renewable energy to the skyscraper typology, the skyscraper sores above other buildings with in a city; the only thing comparable is another skyscraper.

A wind turbine works on the basic principle of using kinetic energy to turn a turbine to create mechanical energy (Energy Saving Trust, 2008). There have been several cases in recent times of buildings incorporating wind turbines into their structural design, and even more cases of older skyscrapers placing smaller wind turbines atop of their structures to create a small input of renewable power for their constructions.

In the case of a skyscraper the production of wind turbines incorporated into any building design are always going to be limited. If the turbines are built into the structure then the orientation has to be changed so that the turbines are facing into the prevailing wind for the year so they get the most use out of them that they possible can. The problem with having the turbines fixed in one direction is that they will only get the full front of wind for half the year, as the wind changes it prevailing direction in summer and winter, because of this reason, the Darrieus style wind turbine offers perhaps the most consistent form of energy production. The Darrieus wind turbine is a built based on a vertical axis, usually with two or three blades (Reuk, 2007). It is though, the vertical axis that makes the crucial difference when trying to incorporate the turbine into the skyscraper design.

Most skyscrapers already have antennas placed on top of their structures, some times merely for decoration, sometimes for radio, these antennas have the potential to form the basis of a renewable energy strategy for the building. To incorporate a wind turbine for the building would not change the design of the building vastly, the main change would be that the top floor would house the machinery for the turbine. With a Darrieus turbine located at the top of the building, the turbine will be able to run throughout the whole year, not just one season, which will vastly increase the amount of energy production from the scheme, practically doubling the output of the turbines simply by being able to run through out the entire year.

With the advancing designs of wind turbines, more and more are being incorporated into skyscrapers. The Darrieus wind turbine provides the central focal point for the Burj Al Taqa in Dubai, whilst the Bahrain has three large wind turbines spanned between it’s two towers

4.5 Summary

The design of the Burj Al Taqa in Dubai shows that skyscrapers can be designed to be one hundred percent energy efficient, it is merely a case of studying the best possible solution for your structure, and for the climate the skyscraper will be located in. It may take solutions that aren’t necessarily directly on site for some skyscrapers, but if each building could create a solar farm near by in a designated area (perhaps a park within the city, maybe even making it something for the public too, like a public realm solution), a community of skyscrapers could benefit from the scheme instead of just one.

As stated before in the Theories of Change chapter, technology will not solve the entire environmental problem caused by skyscrapers, design principles to have to change. Technology can however, make the biggest, lone impact.

If the design of the skyscraper is done in a manner that we can incorporate some of the technologies talked about here (amongst others), the carbon footprint of the skyscraper typology will dramatically decrease and then once both the design principles are also altered for the way Architects generally design skyscrapers, the building will not only be sustainable from technology, it will also be ecological aware in its design.

5. Strata SE1 – A Case study of Change.

This chapter takes a look at a case study of environmentally minded skyscraper design within London, England. Robbie Turner of Bogle Flanagan Lawrence Silver Ltd Architects has provided all the information in this chapter regarding the Strata SE1 design process and the design itself. (All documents provided comprise in appendices section of this document form the basis and references of this chapter).

In November 2005, planning permission was submitted in the London borough of Southwark by Architects BFLS (Bogle Flanagan Lawrence Silver Ltd.) for a 148 meter, 43-storey Skyscraper located at Elephant and Castle, the building, Strata SE1, would become England’s leading eco-skyscraper at the time of completion.

Five years later the buildings construction was completed, making the skyscraper the tallest residential building in England, but upon It’s completion it also became the first building in the world to have integrated wind turbines within it’s structure, previously some skyscrapers have incorporated wind turbines atop of their structure, or as with the Bahrain World Trade Centre building, between the towers of the skyscrapers.

The building houses three, five bladed, nine meter diameter wind turbines (Strata SE1 Wind turbines – The Facts, 2010) which each have a rating of 19kW, which if they ran continuously could provide up to 8% of the constructions entire total energy consumption, the equivalent of meeting the energy depends for 30 two bedroom apartments (according to 2006 Building Regulations). Strata SE1 also exceeds current UK regulations relating to sustainability by 13%, whilst the projects overall carbon emissions are expected to be 15% lower than the Mayor of London’s good practice benchmark.

Whilst the wind turbines are the most obvious sustainable consideration, Strata SE1 also has other environmentally conscious aspects, including:

u96% of all waste material generated during construction was recycled

uCar park lighting reduced by 50% because it is controlled by motion detection

uDistrict heating system

uLow energy lighting in all landlord areas and 40% of the lighting in each apartment

uDesigned to connect to the planned Elephant & Castle Multi Utility service Company – which will provide heat and electricity from Biomass CHP energy centres and grey water to units within Strata SE1

uA “bespoke high thermal facade’ forms the cladding of the building, which has an air permeability leakage rate that is 50% better than current regulations.

The wind turbines are the environmental focal point when it comes to Strata SE1, these however are an end product of a large-scale study into what other systems could offer the build and site.

When the planning permission application was submitted, planning in London required consideration of sustainable design – and The GLA (Greater London Authority) Planning document stated that the building would require a renewable energy input of at least 10% of the buildings energy consumption had to be produced on site, which meant all avenues had to be exhausted to find a viable option before the scheme could be given the green light.

Options that were studied and explored during the design stage of Strata SE1 included:

Ground Source Heat Pump System (GSHP)
Photo Voltaic Cells (PV)
Biomass
Wind Turbines

The testing of the systems showed that the wind turbines offered the highest potential results in sustainability and effectiveness.

A ground source heat pump system is a heating/cooling system, which uses the Earth itself as a heat source in the winter or a heat sink in the summer. The cover the basic principles again – Copper tube loops are laid at a fairly shallow depth, through which a refrigerant or water is passed through to exchange heat with the ground.

The problem faced with incorporating such a system into the Strata SE1 building was the fact that the site the building is situated on has such a small footprint that they would have not been able to accommodate a system that would have been large enough to make any contribution to the constructions heating system, meaning that the system was an unjustifiable ecological approach.

Photo Voltaic Cells were also a considered option because the building could incorporate solar cells easily into the design, but there were too many problems with accommodating a Solar Panel system, which meant in the long run, they would not be the most viable option.

For a Photo voltaic scheme to produce as much an input as the wind turbines are expected to it would have meant having to clad the entire South facade of the building in the PV Cells because the require such a large surface area. However cladding the entire south facade wasn’t the only effect that using the PV Cells would have caused. At the time of the proposal of the building, the Life span of Photo Voltaic Cells was relatively short for such a scheme, and using this method of renewable energy would have required re-cladding the entire South Facade every fifth-teen years and for that reason the scheme would not be very cost-effective. Once installed the solar panels would have also require regularly cleaning for them to function efficiently – which would have meant increasing the quarterly facade cleaning scheme in place, and ultimately a high service charge for all residents in the building and with all of these issues to take into consideration the Architects decided that PV Cells were not the most suitable renewable energy source for the project.

A biomass system was also investigated, but also came up short for one main reason. To have a biomass system in place at the Strata SE1 site there would have had to be a Biomass storage facility located much closer to the site so that materials could have been moved to the site easily, and with minimal ecological impact, otherwise the system wouldn’t be very eco-friendly due to the use of fuel and pollution cause from the transportation of the materials.

The wind turbines were the chosen option by the Architects after the testing and studies, because they felt it offered the best potential energy input for the building, with minimal upkeep costs and effects on the residents of the building, and they also felt it offered the best chance to create a truly unique piece of architecture which would deliver a ‘highly visible commitment to sustainable design’.

The wind turbines were chosen because the practice believes, looking at all the evidence from their investigations into other sustainable option, that it was the most viable option, it was the option that could produce the best input back into the design, and the option, that ultimately, would make a greater contribution to reduce the buildings effect on the environment and as the building was already orientated to be facing the prevailing summer wind direction; it was just a matter of how they could incorporate them into the design meaning less alterations would have to be incorporated into the buildings design to accommodate the turbines compared to other systems that could of perhaps been used instead.

The Wind turbines housed at the very top of the Strata SE1 construction form part of the facade design – they are not merely just an after thought for the environment. The turbines are installed within three, nine-meter diameter Venturi tubes.

The Venturi are shaped tubes that hone modify the pressure differential across the building, resulting in the acceleration of the winds speed through the tubes, increasing the power that can be produced by the turbines.

The wind turbines however can only operate for just over half the year because of the change in prevailing wind direction in the winter months of the year, therefore the turbines cannot run continuously for the year and because the wind is variable, the power it produces will not always be the full 19kW, so the total energy production of the wind turbines is currently unknown and although they have the capability to produce up to 8% of the buildings energy, they will likely never meet the full 8% they are capable of because of these limitations. (During their first two years of operation Southbank University will monitor the wind turbines to find out just how effective they are and how much energy they actually produce).

It is key to remember however that the project was an experiment. The Architects wanted to see what ways they could incorporate a method of sustainable design into their residential skyscraper project, proving to themselves and other British based Architects that’s the design of sustainable skyscrapers in Britain can be done.

The design of Strata SE1 will meet the targets that were set out at the beginning of the proposal stage by the government, the target being that the structure would be able to meet 10% of its energy consumption with renewable energy that is produced on site itself, but it will take a few years to reach this mark (once the combined heating and power system is in use and the turbines are up and running correctly with their true outputs known). Perhaps the most important statement the Strata SE1 building makes is that it shows other Architects you can still design a beautiful construction whilst incorporating sustainable technologies into the building structure itself.

6. Buildings And Architects Leading A Worldwide Makeover.

This chapter takes a look at four skyscrapers that are helping lead the way in environmentally friendly construction, design and operational practice. Three of the four buildings are completed structures, whilst the building that is not completed is a project by architect Ken Yeang, whom many consider the leading Architect in the field.

It is hard to talk about the Eco-Skyscraper typology without mentioning Ken Yeang; he himself practically coining the term when he published The Skyscraper – Bioclimatically Considered in 1996, and it is with Yeang that this chapter will start.

Yeang is perhaps more famous for his theories than his constructions, but his constructions and designs are instantly recognisable (but that is mainly because of his design principles in the first place). Yeang has proposed a number of Eco-Skyscrapers/Towers with many being built or currently under construction.

6.1 Editt tower, Singapore – Designed By T. R. Hamzah & Yeang International (All information provided from ‘Yeang,K; Hamzah, TR, 2011’)

The EDITT (Ecological Design In The Tropics) Tower is a skyscraper proposed for Singapore that was designed in response to the sites ecology after it was carefully studied at first. The design features well planted facades that respond to the lack of the sites original ecology being left in tact, with the design having just less than 4,000 sq feet of planted areas.

One of Ken Yeangs most talked about theories; vertical landscaping is very present in this proposal, with vegetation spiralling upwards from the first floor whilst the main sky-gardens proposed at different levels respond to each of the different zones of use in the tower. The constructions vegetation, which is “most visually apparent, is the vertical landscaping which spirals around no just externally but through and within the built form” (Ken Yeang, 2007 3)

The EDITT Tower is also design on the mixed-mode principle of design. The design maximises the locations natural climate, with ”wind walls” running parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind to offer natural ventilation and minimise the use of air-conditioning units, whilst the sky courts offer comfort-cooling areas to the public occupying the building.

The building was also designed with the view to re-use the tower complex for different purposes in the future, so the building is less susceptible to being left empty or having to be demolished. The skyscraper proposes what they coin a ‘loose fit’ system, where areas can be changed in the future to accommodate different uses; the sky-gardens could accommodate office space whilst the building has a vast amount of partition walls and some partition floors.

The EDITT Tower is a perfect example of what Ken Yeang tries to promote through his designing and teaching, that even skyscrapers can be designed with ecology and climate at the heart of the design, lessening the impact on the climate, and help rejuvenating the local site’s ecology.

6.2 The Hearst Tower, New York (All information provided from ‘Design Build, 2011’)

The Hearst Tower located in Manhattan, New York, is a LEED (leadership in energy and environmental design) (U.S Green Building Council, 2011) Gold Certificate skyscraper, which was designed by Foster and Partners and Gensler has become the benchmark in America of environmentally friendly skyscrapers, being design to be 26% more energy-efficient than a standard office building in new york.

The skyscrapers form features a diagrid (a slight variation of a diagonal grid) design with is a series of triangles, 4 storeys in height, which allows for natural light to flood into the building from outsides, whilst a limited number of partition walls are used internally, to minimise the loss of natural light internally.

The design of the diagrad frame, which helps form the buildings instantly recognisable form, reduces the need for up to an estimated 2,000 tonnes of steel that a traditional skyscraper frame would require, whilst the steel that does form the frame, 90 percent of it is recycled steel.

As well as being built from a significant contribution of recycled materials, the Hearst Tower has many energy saving features. The buildings facade is created from glass that has a ‘low-E’ coating, meaning that whilst vast amount of natural light can flood into the building, solar radiation which causes temperatures to rise in the interior spaces are emitted, lowering the demand on air-conditioning units and other methods interior climate control.

The interior of the building is fitted with technology that helps manage the indoor conditions to save energy. A high efficiency heating and air-conditioning system helps control indoor comfort levels by using outside air for ventilation up to 75 percent of the year at the same the roof can collect up to 14,000 gallons of rain water, which is used to replace water lost because of evaporation in the air conditioning system and which is also used to irrigate the plants and trees inside and out of the building. Finally another piece of technology used throughout the building are light sensors that are used to control the amount of artificial light being used in the building.

6.3 The Bank of America Tower, Manhattan, New York (All information provided from, ‘Durst Org, 2011’ & ‘Jeffery Kluger, 2010’)

Cook and Fox Architects designed the Bank Of America Tower at One Bryant Park in New York and is the first skyscraper to be design with achieving the LEED Platinum certificate for environmental design.

The skyscraper facade, as with the Hearst Tower also in New York, is designed with floor to roof insulated glass which helps maximises the natural daylight inside the building, whilst keeping the solar gain within the building to a comfortable level for all the inhabitants, whilst the building also operates a full time dimming programme for it’s lighting system, keeping the artificial lighting at predefined levels as to use the minimum amount of energy possible.

The building itself is built from more than 35 percent recycled materials, whilst 75 percent of the building previously on site materials were recycled upon or prior too demolition. The building is also constructed using concrete that is produced with a larger than usual concentration of slag, meaning that the harm done to environment is lowered because less carbon dioxide is produced from the manufacturing process.

Various different sensors that help control the temperature in an environmentally friendly approach conduct the management of the buildings interior climate. Sensors that measure carbon dioxide levels throughout the building sending fresh air to area in the building which require it the most.

The Bank of America Tower also has a water conservation scheme in place, opting for waterless urinals in the building, which save an estimated 8 million gallons of water a year, whilst reducing carbon dioxide emissions at the same time.

On May 20th 2010, the Bank Of America Tower was finally award the LEED Platinum certificate, making it the first high-rise office-building complex in America to be given the award for environmental performance and sustainability.

6.4 Four Times Square, Manhattan, New York (All information’s provided by ‘NrelGov, 2002’)

Perhaps the most important skyscraper in New York’s’ green makeover is the Four Times Square construction. Designed by Fox and Fowie Architects the buildings systems and construction methods were all evaluated for their environmental sensitivity, their effects on health and for the buildings ability to reduce it’s energy consumption. When the construction was finished it set an example for other American architects to follow, showing that a sustainable/ ecologically conscious skyscraper was possible to build, even in the harsh, pollutant filled Manhattan Island environment.

As with many of the other environmentally friendly skyscrapers mentioned before, Four Times Square makes use of various different sensors to automatically control certain aspects of the building. Sensors control the lighting within the building, automatically sensing what the levels of light whilst as with the Bank of America Tower and the Hearst Tower, low-e glass is used for the curtain walling system to provide excellent day light conditions in the building whilst decreasing heat loss in the winter at the same time as reducing solar heat within the building in the summer.

The construction has a unique air conditioning system, with air entering the building at 80 and 700 feet above ground level (avoiding traffic pollution), using the outdoor air helps to regulate the temperatures within the building whilst lowering the demand on mechanical air-conditioning units, circulating 50 percent more indoor air than the building is required to by local building codes, whilst at the same time the system can fill up to four floors with 100 percent outdoor air, helping to circulate fresh air within the building.

Natural gas powered chillers/heaters are used for the production of hot and cold water in the building (the mechanisms are located on the roof), with different systems available for the varying requirements in use. These gas powered chillers and heaters produce no harmful gasses making the system completely eco-friendly.

The building also uses photovoltaic panels for a method of renewable energy production; these panels are located in the gaps between rows of windows on the top 19 floors of the southern and eastern facade of the skyscrapers.

Despite not having any LEED certificates to date, the building was the first Skyscraper in New York to look at each stage of the design and analyse just how ecologically friendly the building would be and with this strategy in place stringent procedures had to be followed day to day throughout the construction process and even now in the ever day running of the building so that the construction would maintain its high standards for being an environmentally aware construction.

7. Conclusion

This dissertation took a look at whether you can design a skyscraper and been ecologically and environmentally conscious whilst constructing these mammoth structures.

Materials used to construct skyscrapers, will ultimately run out. Steel can only survive as a material whilst iron ore is obtainable, and many other construction materials will also stop being produced because of the lack of deposits that are obtainable of the raw materials used to produce them, whether or not we can produce materials in the future to build these superstructures, the design for them in the mean time need re-evaluating to produce greener results.

The construction methods, may actually never be able to be changed, building high requires the use of plants and cranes that currently there are no alternatives to, perhaps the only change possible for this would be the incorporation of cleaner fuel to reduce the pollution caused from their use.

The problem with the skyscraper in general is that over the last twenty years they have been designed in a manner that leaves a heavy reliance on technology to produce and control the interior climatic conditions, whilst the architect merely designs too often to just produce the most striking visual possible. It is however the with greater focus and application of basic design principles that Architects can begin to make a significant impact on the reduction of carbon emission produced by skyscrapers.

Passive and even mixed mode design has been used for many decades in various different forms and methods, and has been used before in skyscraper design, so the principle is known to be suitable. This would mean that the skyscraper would be designed to emphasise natural means of controlling the climatic conditions within the building to help reduce the demand on mechanical air condition and heating units that require an extremely larger amount of power to run.

Another design theory that will optimise the most of the natural environment that the skyscraper belongs to, is keying in on what correct orientation of the building can offer. Already skyscrapers are being proposed that have moveable skins (responsive curtain walling systems), which automatically change their configuration to optimise circulation of air from the outdoor world.

Designing to reduce the effects on ecology is another aspect of sustainable design that perhaps doesn’t get enough attention. Designing to preserve an ecology or reinstate a sites ecology can help benefit the environment, furthermore planting trees, designing sky gardens or sky courts will reduce the pollution in and around the building, making conditions not only more environmentally friendly, but for the inhabitants more instantly more comfortable and at the same time stimulating. Providing the skyscraper with a areas of vegetation on the exterior of the building will also help reduce the heat island effect, which will ultimately cause temperatures within the city will naturally fall, again reducing the demand on combine heating and ventilation systems. Designing with principles like the ones just mentioned, and the others theories mentioned in the chapter on design principles, will instantly reduce the skyscrapers carbon footprint by a substantial amount whilst improving the environment around the building, without having to rely on the use of many forms of technology.

Technology however, will produce the greatest input into making a building sustainable, ultimately producing designs that could generate so much energy from sustainable sources that it could provide surplus energy to the national grids of company.

Sustainable energy resources as mentioned in the chapter about what technology has to offer, are hard to incorporate typically on small footprints, but what the skyscraper has to offer is a vast amount of square meters in vertical facades, whilst the building also pierces through the city’s skyline, opening it up to the elements, so that the skyscraper is perhaps the most suitable building typology for the wind turbine.

Sustainable energy sources are the solution to making the overall day-to-day running of the skyscraper more environmentally friendly. The skyscraper demands a high level of energy to function properly, lighting, sewage systems, computers, lifts, elevators and conditioning units all require a huge amount of electricity to run on over seventy continuous floors stacked one on top of another, especially water and sewage systems that have to contend with gravity.

At this moment in time, the technology is not available to only have to incorporate only one method of sustainable energy production into a skyscrapers design and meet all of the buildings energy consumption needs, for example skyscraper could be covered from ground level to its top out point of its spire in solar panels and this would still not generate enough energy.

More than one method would have to be used to meet the level of consumption, but it is possible, as shown with the design concept of the Burj-al-Taqa in Dubai, which combines over 20,000 square meters of solar panels (more than half located off site, but within close proximity) and a wind turbine that helps top out the structure.

It can however be easier than most architects would initially believe to incorporate a form of sustainable design, in the chapter technology, wind turbines were mentioned for what they have to offer, and the Darreius Wind Turbine is perhaps the most beautiful solution to the skyscrapers sustainable energy problem. The Darrieus wind turbine is natural in design, flowing and elegant and would not derive from any beautiful form an architect can design for a skyscraper, furthermore it is a turbine that can work continuously throughout the year, unlike the venturi tubed wind turbines found on Strata SE1 in London, which are limited to half the year out of work because of the natural change in prevailing wind direction, where as a Darrieus Wind Turbine runs on a vertical axis, and as most skyscrapers now have pinnacles purely to top out the building, a method of decoration to reach a taller height, they can put the pinnacle to greater use and create a from of energy production for the building.

With organisations now a foot – LEED in America and other such organisations across the world measuring achievements in building green and teaching how to build sustainably, architects and designers have guidelines to follow, examples to follow in the footsteps of architects know that they can build to high enough to levels of sustainability and too eco-friendly standards.

It is however, not enough to build sustainably on it’s own, the ecologically friendly aspect has to incorporate too. Architects and designs are guilty of over paving natural green areas too often, destroying habitats of animals and insects across the planet. Sustainable design will reduce the reliance on fossil fuels and ultimately lower green house gasses emission rates, but to truly make an impact on the environment of a whole, both methods of designing for the environment have to be incorporated.

The correct changes to the design of skyscrapers are already a foot, with thousands of designs for greener skyscrapers proposed, hundreds of retro-fitting schemes already being carried out and a several hundreds of environmentally friendly/concious skyscrapers already constructed. It is clear that with a mix of well thought out design principles balanced with an appropriate use of technology and sustainable energy, the skyscraper has a greener place in the future, and because they have such a high energy consumption, they more than any other building typology can help reduce the environmental impact that mankind is having, simply by being designed with greener principles. There can never truly be one set design, nor one set of guidelines for a environmentally friendly skyscraper because they are never located in identical environments, that is simply not possible but this document looked at a small selection of the options available to Architects for them to build more sustainable and eco-friendly skyscrapers, and more importantly it shows that it can be done successfully.

Architects have the technology and design principles to create sustainable and ecologically friendly skyscrapers; all it takes is a well thought-out and planned design.

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Introduction

Over the decades there has been a growing concern about the escalating amounts of plastic debris found in the marine environment. Plastic debris has been reported worldwide in marine and terrestrial habitats (Thompson et al, 2004). The understanding of micro-plastic spatial, temporal distribution and its abundance in the oceans environment (water, sediment, and biota) is still in its infancy (Le, 2010; NOAA, 2011).Larger plastic fragments have been persistantly recorded since the 1960’s in environments from the poles to the equator (Derraik, 2002). Smaller plastics have been recorded but with less attention. Though the presence of micro plastics is evident, the impacts they may have on the environment is uncertain (GESAMP, 2010). Public, governmental, and institutional awareness is limited. This has allowed for industrial and commercial practices and their processes to go on largely unregulated (Thompson et al, 2009). There is also inadequate awareness amongst the public. That post consumer plastic items and packaging, once in the environment breakdown, generating significant quantities of microscopic plastic debris over time.

Microscopic plastics (<5mm) in the marine environment constitute for a significant environmental pollutant (Derraik, 2002). Pieces have been found in the digestive tracts from a multitude of organisms ranging from microscopic plankton, sea birds, and cetaceans (Teuten et al, 2009). Upon digestion, it is possible for smaller fragments of plastic to present a physical hazard. This can happen through clogging feeding appendages or the digestive system (Derraik, 2002). The properties of plastics allow them to contain and adsorb persistent organic pollutants (POP’s’) (Carpenter et al 1972; Mato et al, 2001). This may facilitate the entry of these chemicals into the food chain, through ingestion from a multitude of marine organisms (Mato et al, 2001, Teuten et al, 2007, 2009).

Previous studies by Thompson et al; 2004; 2006, Brown 2009; Scontus, 2011, Travis, 2011; Colton, 1974; indicated that microscopic plastics are present worldwide particularly in shallow shores and sediment. This demonstrates that through current knowledge, no area is free from plastic pollution.

This study investigates the presence and distribution of microscopic plastics from Marazion and Carbis Bay. This research survey is also the first survey to be performed at these sites. Consequently contributing to the register of surveyed sites previously conducted. This will also continue to build evidence that microscopic plastics are a global scale pollution problem.

Section 1: Literature Review

1.1 The Marine Environment

The earth is covered with 70% water of which 97% is marine salt water (Pidwirney 2010). This environment includes a variety of diverse landscapes which comprise of many different habitat types such as estuarine and rocky shores to coral reefs and the deep oceans. The suites of habitat within the landscapes of the marine environment consistently interlink and occur together, for example: salt marsh; inter-tidal mud-flats; rocky shores and sub-tidal mussel beds which are all present in estuaries (JNCC, 2011). Many of these marine habitats provide important ecosystem services such as provisioning of food and water resources. They also regulate and support functions including: flood control; waste management; water balance and climate regulation (Pinet, 2009). Human reliance on these ecosystem services is fundamental, as it also includes many imperative economically and culturally key organisms (NCEAS, 2010). Around 40% of the global population presently inhabit the coastal band areas which take up 5% of the total land mass. There is an estimated 2.75 billion people living within 100km of the coastline, (LOITZ, 2011) where many communities depend directly upon the marine resources for their livelihood (Kaiser et al, 2008). Human dependence on coastal systems is increasing, particularly in wetlands, reefs, and estuaries. With an estimated increase of 35% by the year 2025 (MARES, 2009).

Research by (Barnes et al, 2009; Lavender-Law et al, 2010), has indicated that contamination of pollutants is much more concentrated in coastal systems, ocean surfaces, and gyres. This can be driven by: ocean circulation, local wind, oceanic current conditions, coastline geography, and the location of discharge points.

1.2 Pollutants in the Marine Environment and their impacts

Pollution is the introduction of substances or energy into the marine environment (Pinet, 2009). Pinet (2009) states that pollutants can be found in three parts of the ocean:

The first is the seabed. Pollutants accumulate here by one of two main ways: They either settle as solid particles directly to the seabed where benthic organisms can mix them into the sediment; or they chemically attach to particles such as silt and clay.

The second part of the ocean is where pollutants are concentrated in the pycnocline. This is the layer that separates water masses at different densities, commonly occurring in estuaries.

The neuston layer (sea surface microlayer) is the part of the ocean where solid wastes can accumulate. It is a thin interface of 0.1-10mm between air and sea. The chemicals and solids that collect here tend to aggregate and can affect the plankton and other invertebrates that use this layer as a temporary habitat (Pinet, 2009).

UNEP (2009) reports an estimated 80% of all polluting substances in the marine environment derive from a multitude of direct or indirect human land based activities. Shipping and sea dumping are thought to contribute to the remaining 20% (Karua, 2003). This also includes exploration and production from the offshore oil and gas industry, including the transportation of marine oil.

Direct inputs of pollution include either discharge of solid wastes e.g. plastics, or effluent from sewage sources such as industrial, municipal or coastal (Pinet, 2009).

Indirect inputs come from either land runoff where pollutants are transported mainly by rivers, or atmospheric fallout of pollutants entering the surface layer of the ocean (Clark, 2001).

When pollutants enter the marine environment they are broken down or degraded by oceanic and biological processes (Pinet, 2009). Pinet (2009) states that crude oil and petroleum spills in the marine environment are spread through advection caused by currents and winds. The hydrocarbons within the oil undergo evaporation, dissolution, emulsification, vertical mixing, and sedimentation. Pinet (2009) continues that biological process such as degradation to carbon dioxide by microbes and its ingestion by organisms. Have been shown to alter the composition of pollutants and disperse the spill further (Pinet, 2009). Municipal and industrial effluent comes in two forms: ‘natural’ such as sewage, and ‘artificial’ such as plastic (Pinet, 2009). These have entered the marine environment as mentioned above mainly by rivers. As pollutants enter the coastal waters, they are rapidly diluted by natural ‘self cleansing’ mixing processes, however, due to population increase, the volume of untreated wastes exceed the natural capacity of these coastal environments (Woodford, 2006). The natural mobility of water in contrast with land sourced pollution, allows pollutants to disperse over greater distances from the sources of input (Morales-Ojeda et al, 2010). Anthropogenic activities have led to ecosystem degradation, but the speed at which this occurs depends on local and regional characteristics (Morales-Ojeda et al, 2010).

The impacts pollutants have on the marine environment are diverse. At the extreme level of impact, the effects on marine life are acute and lethal to all biota. Organism populations are damaged, altering the structure of the community (Eisler, 1985). Eisler (1985) continues to state that this equates to the lethal amount of a polluting substance, when given in a single dose. This is termed acute toxicity. At this level Eisler reported the most sensitive species of fauna are eliminated, with a consequent distortion within the biological community. A lower sub-lethal level may occur before the concentration of toxic substances reaches a lethal level; this can be used as an early warning of pollution (Eisler, 1985). At the next level, mobile marine animals e.g. fish and birds, can escape by moving away from the contaminated areas as they can detect a stress or change in environmental conditions. Those unable to escape can either adapt to the stress or perish. Sessile organisms like barnacles and vegetation fall into this unfortunate category.

Pollutants can have detrimental effects on marine organisms, communities, and ecosystems. Depending on the type of impact they have, they can be grouped into one of the following categories of increasing hazard, detailed by Patin (n.d) as being:

Substances causing mechanical impacts (suspensions, films, solid wastes) that damage the respiratory organs, digestive system, and receptive ability.
Substances provoking eutrophic effects (e.g., mineral compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus, and organic substances) that cause mass rapid growth of primary producers and disturb the balance, structure, and functions of the marine ecosystem.
Substances with saprogenic properties (sewage with a high content of easily decomposing organic matter) that cause oxygen deficiency followed by mass mortality of biota, and appearance of specific microflora.
Substances causing toxic effects (e.g., heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, dioxins, and furans) that damage the physiological processes and functions of reproduction, feeding, and respiration.
Substances with mutagenic properties (e.g., benzo(a)pyrene and other polycyclic aromatic compounds, biphenyls, radionuclides) that cause carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic effects.

These categories show the abundance of sub-lethal affects which are strong indicators of pollutant induced stress. This also highlights the negative impacts of pollutants on the marine environment.

1.3 Plastic debris and the Marine Environment

Plastic debris can be found in seas in all areas of the globe (Clarke, 2001) indicating that this is an international concern. The manufacture of plastic produces millions of tons per year (Thompson et al, 2004). The worldwide production has significantly increased over the last 60 years expanding from 1.5 million tons to 245 million tons per annum (Zarfl and Matthies, 2010). The type of plastic produced in the current markets are chemically engineered to be highly durable and designed to support a slow biodegradation rate (Sudhaker et al, 2007). This type of manufacturing could result in plastic being one of the most profuse contaminants for centuries (Shaw et al 1994; as cited in Lavender-Law et al 2010). Considering the design and high production of plastic, there is growing concern for the risk of accumulation in marine habitats. There is evidence to suggest that plastic debris can account for between 50-80% of plastics reported on beaches, ocean surfaces and the seabed (Zarfl and Matthies, 2010).

Today’s current market has made plastic highly accessible and transformed it into society’s everyday lives (Thompson, 2009). Due to the versatile use and low cost of manufacture, it has helped make significant advances in all areas such as energy savings, human health, and lower costs in transportation (Zarfl and Matthies, 2010). Of all plastic produced, one third is used for single use items that are disposed of within a year (Knoblauch 2009). Packaging is a major component (Zarfl and Matthies 2010), who continues to state that plastic litter accounts for 10% of municipal waste worldwide. On the sea and coasts, plastic litter is mainly primary or secondary packaging consisting mainly of plastic bags, cups, bottles, feminine hygiene products and polystyrene (Clark, 2001). In 2009 a research project was performed on ‘every day’ commodities which contain micro plastics, revealing that a majority of facial cleansers now contain polyethylene micro plastics (Fendall and Sewell, 2009). The five main high production plastics that constitute for 90% of the total demand are: Polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET), Polyvinylchoride (PVC) and Polystyrene (PS) (Andrady and Neal, 2009).

Identifying the source of plastic debris is a complicated task due to the considerable amount of ways it could have entered the beach sediment. The source of some items can be accurately identified, and may be attributed with a high level of confidence to one of six specific sources: public, fishing, sewage related debris (SRD), shipping, fly tipped, or medical (MCA, 2009). An additional category is used for items that are unidentifiable (non-sourced). This is because these items have either degraded too much, or have come from a multitude of sources.

1.4 Micro-plastic fibres and the Marine Environment

Plastics that are <5mm are classified as micro-plastic fibres (Brown et al 2009). This was first introduced in September 2008 where the first International Conference of the newly recognised microplastic concern was sponsored by the U.S National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Six countries were involved and agreed to define the term micro plastics as “plastic pieces or fragments smaller than 5 millimetres” (Betts , 2008)

Micro plastics are usually the remains of macro plastics that are impervious to biodegradation (Thompson, 2004). Mechanical processes such as photo degradation by UV rays and wave abrasion can breakdown plastics into smaller particles (Klemchuck, 1990). Some plastics are susceptible to biodegradation due to containing matter such as starch which degrades but still leaves the micro-plastic fragments behind (Thompson et al, 2004). Micro plastic fibres can be from a number of sources. In a research project by Thompson et al (2004) FT-IR spectroscopy was used which discovered 9 conclusive polymers recognized as: acrylic, alkyd, poly (ethylene:propylene), polyamide (nylon), polyester, polyethylene, polymethlacrylate, polypropylene and polyvinyl-alcohol. They were present in marine sediment, including estuarine, sub-tidal, and sandy beaches. These types of polymers can be associated with larger macro plastics such as rope, clothes, and packaging. This further suggests according to Thompson et al (2004) that micro plastics are the result of mechanical breakdown.

In addition to mechanical breakdown, micro plastics enter the marine environment through accidental loss. This can happen during manufacturing and transport before entering the production phase such as in resin pellets and powders (Moore et al 2008). A study by Ashton et al (2010) found that in SW England, pellets were generally 3-5mm in diameter, out of 30 resin pellets identified, 29 were of polyethylene origin, with the remaining pellet being nylon. Plastic particles (fragments, fibres, and pellets) have been found in a study by Doyle et al (2010) to be widely distributed in the surface waters of the North East Pacific coastal ecosystems. Temporal and spatial variability in the quantities sampled were evident. The study also found that plastic fragments < 2.5mm were identified as the main contaminant in the pelagic ecosystems. These were assumed to be related to the mechanical breakdown from larger fragments with a widespread distribution due to ocean currents. These studies and various others such as Thompson et al (2004); Moore (2008) have shown the presence of micro plastic debris in the marine environment. However, to date there are no standardized methods for collecting, identifying, and quantifying micro-plastics in environmental samples. There is also no consistent terminology used to describe the issue between individual marine species and the encounter rates with plastic particles (Doyle et al, 2010).

1.5 The Chemical Effects of Plastic on Marine Biota

The most evident impact plastic has on marine organisms from birds to plankton is physical entanglement and ingestion of plastic resulting in suffocation and starvation (Laist, 1987, Clark, 2001 and Thompson et al, 2004). Evidence of fragmented plastic in the marine environment allows for ingestion by a broader range of organisms (Barnes et al, 2008). Research on Great Shearwaters as mentioned by Zarfl and Matthies (2010) indicated a relationship between chemical burden and ingestion. This research led to the theory that the consumption and ingestion of plastic debris may transfer toxins through biota (Teuten etal, 2009).

In the marine environment, micro plastics are known to absorb and concentrate contaminants (Mato et al. 2001). These can become several orders of magnitude more concentrated on the surface of the debris than in the surrounding seawater (Mato et al. 2001). Plastic contains organic contaminants which include: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2?-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hex chlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkyl phenols and biphenyl A (Teuten et al, 2009). A number of these additives are known to be, submitted during the manufacturing process. These antioxidants, stabilizers, flame-retardants and phthalate plasticizers create a unique property to each plastic (Thompson et al, 2009, Teuten, 2009). Additives and organic compounds can also be absorbed into the plastic from the immediate seawater (hydrophobic chemicals) (Thompson et al, 2009, Teuten, 2009). Plasticizers end up in the environment as they are not especially stable in the plastic product and leach out (Staple et al 1997). Biphenyl- A (BPA) degrades rapidly. However due to its frequent appearance in aquatic ecosystems through point discharges such as landfill leachate and sewage treatment plant effluent, it is continually released into the environment (Oehelmann et al 2009).

Reports have indicated that BPA and phthalates bio concentration factors (BCF) in invertebrates are typically higher than those in vertebrates. A study carried out by the European Union in 2003. Found that the Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalates (DEHP) bioaccumulation factor is between 42 and 82 in variety of fish species, but in the amphipod Gammarus psuedolimnaueus BFC was 3600. In Mytilus edulis BFC was 2500 and up to 5380 in the copepod Acartia tonsa. This indicated that suspension feeders that are fixed to their habitats are more likely to consume pollutants.

The effects phthalates had on biochemical pathways such as antioxidant and proximal marker enzymes in M. edulis and M.galloprovincialis showed that exposure to diallyl phthalate (DAP) reduced phosphor-protein levels and raised micronuclei frequency. This was a marker for genotoxicity and fragmented – apoptic cells in the gills (Barsiene et al, 2006). Furthermore in a study carried out by Tagatz et al (1986) Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) altered community structure and colonisation profiles of zoomicrobenthos in both laboratory and field conditions with up to a 49-97% reduction in the density of molluscs and echinoderms.

Studies of the impacts of BPA on bivalves particularly in Mytilus species has shown increased; phosphor-protein levels, induced spawning in both sexes, damaged oocytes and ovarian follicles (Aarab et al, 2006) and increased micronuclei frequency in gill cells (Barsiene et al, 2006). BPA also caused a significant effect in the haemolymph. That initiates a lysomal membrane destabilization in extracted haemocytes in M.galloprovicialis (Canasie et al 2007). BPA has furthermore caused alterations in phosphorylation of MAP kinases, which is essential in embryogenesis, cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (Canasie et al 2007). The outcome of these studies may suggest considerable implications for the health of mussel species (Oehelmann et al 2009).

The majority of past literature which has been published on plastic debris concentrates on the distribution of plastics and classification. Research by Mato et al (2001) found that contaminants adsorb to plastics. This illustrates potential for indirect effects of debris ingestion. Microplastics have recently been identified as marine pollutants of significant concern, due to their persistence, ubiquity and potential act as vectors to transfer and expose persistent organic pollutants (POP’s) to marine organisms (Obard and Ng, 2005).

1.6 Transfer of Contaminants from Plastics to Lower Trophic Organisms

Research was conducted on lugworms, Arenicola marina by Thompson et al (2004). They assessed the ability of micro plastics to transport contaminants to benthic organisms. The experiment exposed a priority pollutant phenathrene (a PAH), tetrabromodiphenyl ether (a PBDE), triclosan (antimicrobial) and NP to microscopic PVC particles, at environmentally appropriate concentrations. Sediment containing these plastics was exposed to A.marina. The result of the trial indicated that the contaminant concentrations were significantly higher than in the sediment. This demonstrated that contaminants can be transported from plastic to organism. However the mechanism remains unclear (Thompson 2004–2007, unpublished data). Additional research by Thompson et al (2004) shows that a variety of organisms with differing feeding habits (sediment feeders, filter feeders), have all shown to ingest plastic fragments/ fibres. The results of these trials indicates that ingestion of contaminant-sorbed plastics, have the potential to be a pathway of contaminant transport to benthic organisms.

Studies conducted by Brown et al (2009) revealed that micro plastics that were ingested by the bivalve M.edulis persisted in the circulatory system >48 days. Larger numbers of smaller plastics were discovered in the actual circulatory tissue. It is important here to highlight the scarcity of research and the rarity of studies concentrating on the biological impacts of marine micro plastic on invertebrates. Thompson et al (2005) stressed the importance that further research is needed to focus on micro plastic ingestion and bioaccumulation in food chains. This could help to better appreciate the effects of interactions on the level of organism impacts, before extrapolating to ecosystem level impacts of micro plastics (Arthur et al, 2008).

A study undertaken by Teuten et al (2007) investigated the potential for plastics to; transport hydrophobis contaminants and establish the importance that plastics may play in the global distribution of hydrophobic contaminants. It was discovered that there is potential for plastics to transport contaminants to organisms. A priority pollutant phenathrene was also observed to be ingested by the common lugworm A, Marina, which is a benthic deposit feeder. Given the high capacity of plastics to sorb phenanthrene and that A. Marina is at the base of the food chain, eaten by numerous other species. The contamination of A Marina presented high potential to transfer contaminants through the food web (Thompson et al 2004). The presence of small amounts of plastic fibres could also result in a large increase of concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants in the sediment (Teuten et al, 2007). The sea surface microlayer (SML) or neustion layer where hydrophobic contaminants can be concentrated by up to 500 times that of the underlying water column (Mato et al, 2001), it is also one of the main parts of the ocean in which micro plastics accumulate (Mato et al, 2001). Plastics could therefore become an important factor in contaminant transport at a global scale.

1.7 Floating micro plastics: Global Transportation for POP’S, Invasive/Alien Species

Depending on the polymer type and additives the micro plastics position in the water body either; floats on or near the ocean surface, suspended at mid- depth or sinks to the sea bed. The density of the water is also a variable (Gordon 2006). As many plastics are less dense than water they float on the surface micro layer (SML). The high concentrations of POP’s in this layer are available >500 times greater than the underlying water column (Teuten et al 2007). The potential impacts of POP’s have been discussed however micro plastics due to their buoyant nature may also provide a transport mechanism for contaminants globally (Derraik, 2002; Thompson et al 2004). There are reports that plastic debris including micro plastics could also transport invasive and alien species (Derraik, 2002; Moore, 2001) species such as bacteria, diatoms, algae, barnacles, serpulids, hydroids, tunicates and bryozoans (Winston, 1982; Derraik, 2002). These species could pose serious harmful impacts on native biodiversity on a global scale to intertidal and shoreline ecosystems (Gordon 2006). A report by Derraik (2002) suggests a possible decrease of 58% in global marine species biodiversity, if the worldwide biotic mixing continues to rise. An example is of the bryozoans Membranipora tuberculata which has been transported from the Tasman Sea (Australia) to New Zealand on plastic pellets (Gregory, 1978). The same species has been discovered on plastics which have been stranded on the shores of the USA, Derraik (2002) states their abundance has increased worldwide. Though in a study by Moore et al (2001) in the North Pacific Central Gyre <10% of micro plastics researched was host to the bryozoan Membranipora tuberculata. Floating plastics combined with other sources of debris can also cause severe issues regarding water quality, obstructing the growth of marine vegetation, decreasing spawning areas and habitats for marine organisms (Gordon, 2006).

1.8 Transport and Distribution

The understanding of micro-plastic spatial, temporal distribution and its abundance in the oceans environment (water, sediment, and biota) is still in its infancy (Le, 2010; NOAA, 2011). Larger plastic fragments have been persistantly recorded since the 1960’s in environments from the poles to the equator (Derraik, 2002). Smaller plastics have been recorded but with less attention and understanding in methods such as how to quantify the full spectrum of micro-plastic materials present (Thompson, 2004). In the UK on South Wales sedimentary beach habitats Williams and Turner (2001) reported that 63% of debris was represented by plastics (Derraik, 2002). In comparison Thompson et al (2004) reports that the beaches surrounding Plymouth using FT-IR spectroscopy identified ~60% of debris were synthetic polymers which included arcylic, alkyd, poly (ethylene: propylene), polymide (nylon), polyesters, polyethylene, polymethyacrylate, polypropylene and polyvinyl-alcohol.

The physical qualities of plastics floatation and hydrodynamics (dicussed in section 1.8) advocates that plastic debris can be transported and distributed through the oceans surface currents. Oceanic effects are important controls of the movement and weathering of plastic debris. The properties and durability of the polymers are also variables (Pichel et al, 2008). The haline and cooling properties of the ocean interfere with the UV degradation process. Which indicates that plastics have a longer degradation time in the marine environment (Barnes et al, 2011). The fouling of organisms happens relatively quickly therefore plastic debris become sheltered from UV light making it more persistant (Barnes et al, 2011). This was highlighted in a report by Wiess et al (2006) where plastic by an albtross had originated from a plane which had been shot 60 years prior over 9600 km away.

The abundance of plastic debris in a study by Brown et al (2011) shows that location is a significant factor. Brown et al (2011) reported values of 0-7290 plastic items per hectare in the south West Atlantic and Atlantic sector of the Southern ocean. The Mediterranean showed the greatest densities. They concluded this is due to densly populated coastlines and shipping lanes. This combined with a poor dispersion of the plastics due to the limited tidal flow or water circulation (Brown et al, 2011). In comparison in areas of low circulation bottom plastic debris becomes trapped in high concentrations of sediment. This gathers in frontal areas. The debris could have travelled extensive distances only sinking under weight of fouling by a diversity of of bacteria, algae, animals and accumulative sediment (Brown et al, 2011). Plastic debris can also be consumed by organisms. This undigested in faecal matter in turn settles to the bottom (Doyle, 2009). Doyle (2009) reported that fisheries could be an example of this. A report by GESAMP (1990) suggested that 80% of marine pollution is sourced from land based activities and the majority of beaches near population centres are contaminated with a variety of plastic remains that are washed up from the ocean, contributed by rivers, ships and outfalls, dumped by illegal garbage operators or left behind by beach users.

It is liable that the majority of plastics that have entered the marine environment have continually occured as polymers. Few of which can fully degrade in the marine environment (Andrady 2009). Despite this the absolute quantaties and distribution are uncertain due to the in consistency of verified samples and analytical methods.

1.9 Marine Debris: Control and Legislation

Marine pollution is a local, national, regional and international concern therefore management and policy needs to be implemented at these varying levels. These also need to be adopted to the appropriate systems such as terrestrial and marine based sources of pollution. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea was opened for signature at Montego Bay, Jamaica, on 10 December 1982. It went into force on 14 November 1994 and is presently binding for 154 States, as well as the European Community. Its objective was to protect and preserve the marine environment which established a complete framework governing principles and responsabilities for land and sea based pollution (GESAMP, 2010) to protect human health and the environment.

The Ship and platform-based litter MARPOL 73/78 Annex V which is a section of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (IMO, 2010) it is an international treaty which provides a comprehensive approach to dealing with ocean dumping. It has creating international guidelines for pollution prevention from ships. Annex V prohibits the disposal of plastic and regulates the disposal of other types of rubbish at sea. This convention as of the 31st July 2010, has support of 140 countries which have rartified annex V controlling the disposal of plastics and garbage in the ocean. MARPOL Annex V has also designated ‘Special Areas’ depending on the sites unique oceanographic, ecological or traffic conditions. Where all overboard discharges and garbage are prohited with the exception of ground up food waste. To date MARPOL has enlisted 9 special areas which include; Mediteranean Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulf of Aden North Sea, Antarctic area and the wider Caribbean (GESAMP, 2010). A revision of Annex V commenced in 2006 and MEPC produced a submission containing a new draft proposal which was labelled “IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Commitee 61st session in October 2010”. This overview could adopt a strenghtening in regulations (GESAMP, 2010).

The Global Environmental Facility, Tranboundary Water Assessment Programme (GEF-TWAP) is expected to begin in 2011-2014. The objectives are to develope an indicator based methodology for assessment of transboudary water systems. Which include open oceans,large marine ecosytems, rivers,lakes and groundwater. In addition, to develope partenships with UN and other agencies and the arrangements for the conduct of a global assessment of transboundary waters. If conducted this project would also allow for the priorotation of interventions and allocation for finacial resources (GESAMP, 2010).

The 1996 Protocol refers to the 1972. Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes or Other Matter. It is also known as the London Convention.
This convention prohibits the dumping of all waste except for a restricted group of materials. Then only when it can be established that there are no practical opportunities for reuse or recycling, and that the effects of dumping on the marine environment will be minor (IMO,2010)
The 1996 protocol classifies pollutants into black and grey lists, where black is substances that are toxic, persistant and bio accumulate, in contrast the grey list are those substances which are non-toxic, are persistant and are able to float or remain suspended in the water colum where their is potential interference with the marine environment (GESAMP 2010). These pollutants are controlled and cannot be dumped in the sea other than in trace quantities. Plastic debris according to GESAMP (2010) is enough of a threat to the marine environment to be a black listed pollutant.

The 1998 OSPAR Convention Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic safeguarded specific areas. The European Union has water-protection law (directives) that apply to all of its member states. They include the 1976 Bathing Water Directive, which seeks to ensure the quality of the waters that people use for recreation. Most countries also have their own water pollution laws. In the United States, for example, there is the 1972 Water Pollution Control Act and the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act (European Commission, 2006).

Section 2: Aims and Objectives

1. To survey the micro plastic fibre distribution in the West Cornwall area (North Coast Carbis Bay and South Coast Marazion).

2. To quantify the abundance and investigate the factors that affect accumulation of microscopic plastic fibres.

3. To identify the types of plastic polymers and potential sources of contamination.

4. Assess the potential environmental consequences of micro plastic fibre contamination within UKbeaches.

5.To assess the consistency of existing techniques by:

i) Determining the percentage of micro fibres lost during Petri dish storage.

ii) Using standard blanks to identify possible contamination routes in the laboratory.

Section 2 Study Area

The county of Cornwall has a temperate Oceanic climate (Koppen Climate Classification: CFB) due to its southerly latitude and the influence of the Gulf Stream (Met Office, 2000a). The mean annual temperature varies between 11.6 °C (53 °F) (Met Office, 2000a). The geographical position Cornwall (Appendice 1) is in, experiences related forcing factors; the North coast is exposed to the Celtic Sea and the South coast is similarly exposed to the English Channel. In both cases the wind direction is predominately blowing in from the Atlantic at a south westerly direction (Met Office, 2000b). The tidal patterns for both the North and South coast follow a related semi diurnal trend. Cornwalls deep water rias that provide sheltered harbours and anchorages along the South coast were shaped from the height of the last ice age where Cornwall’s rivers cut long deep valleys and as the ice sheets melted the sea levels rose flooding the estuaries creating rias (Wildlife Trust, 2011).The coastline of the UK covers an area of ~10708 km (Gibson et al, 2001). A 700 km of this coastline belongs to Cornwall’s 300 beaches (Cornwall Development Company, 2010). The Southwest sustains over 60% of the UK’s Heritage Coast and supports a significant proportion of The UK’s designated bathing waters (EA, 2010). The area is also important for rare and endangered habitats (EA, 2010). In addition due to Cornwall’s natural and cultural heritage supports significant economic developments in fisheries and tourism (Bradfield et al, 1976). Other local recreation such as surfing and sailing is generic of the coasts in the county.

2.1 Marazion: Top Tieb beach

Grid Reference: SW 52313 3058

Marazion Top Tieb (Plate 1) beach is situated on the South West coast of Cornwall. The South coast is more sheltered and is interrupted by many rias providing deep water harbours. Top Teib beach is east from the main tourist (blue flag) beach of Marazion, it has no parking facilities and is used mainly by dog walkers and anglers. The harbour, known as Top Tieb, was built in the late 1920s to provide a landing place for boats to and from St Michael’s Mount. The entrance is difficult to access and is only accessible 1-2 hours either side of high tide in the summer. On observation the beach has a shallow seabed and is a mixture of shingles, rocky pools, and soft fine sand. The ecology of the area is reasonably diverse with many residential birds such as the wader Haematopus ostralegus (Oyster catcher) which feeds on bivalves such as Mytlis edullis, Cerastoderma edule (common cockle) and worms such as Arenicola marina (lug worm) which are present in the area.

Plate 1, Marazion Top Tieb beach

The beach is sheltered from the full impact of the Atlantic wind due to the granite outcrops jutting out into the ocean dissipating the strength, however wind action from storms created at sea still create substantial crests. The surrounding cliff which is either occupied on top by farmland or residential gardens is sedimentary which is constantly eroded by high tides and wind abrasion. Plastic pollution was evident on site including; plastic bottles, caps, nets and crates.

2.2 Carbis Bay

Grid Reference: 52983 38922

The North coast is more exposed to the prevailing winds from the Atlantic Ocean than the South coast and is more uneven, with sheer cliffs and steep valleys. Carbis Bay however is a mile or so to the east of St Ives and is relatively sheltered with a relatively calm sea as result of this and Carbis Bay has good bathing waters and is very popular for windsurfing and water-skiing. The shore is a soft sand sedimentary bay. Though the site does not to appear as diverse in wildlife as Top Teib it is a popular coastal walk to spot basking sharks, grey seals, and bottle-nose dolphins.

Plate 2 Carbis Bay beach

Carbis Bay (Plate 2) is approximately 1 mile length. The centre of the beach homes many facilities such as cafes, shop and a car park. The Carbis Bay Hotel has extensive grounds leading down to the edge of the beach. Being north by northeast facing, the beach rarely gets surf and is mainly a family friendly beach. Away from the centre, the beach meanders away to rocky edges. The east side of the beach, at low tide, can dry out to connect with the RSPB bird sanctuary beach of Porthkidney Sands. The beach benefits from an annual beach clean and dog walking is prohibited during the summer period. On site there was no clear plastic pollution, this is most likely due to the annual cleans. For a comprehensive geographical location of Cornwall refer to Appendices 1.

Section 4 Methodology

4.1 Sediment sampling

Using PLASSOP guidelines (Appendices 2) to measure the amount of micro plastic fibres contained in the sub-littoral sediment 5 sample sites were chosen at the strandline of both locations using a metal trowel. The sub sites were set 25 meters apart (Plate 3, Marazion), see Appendices 5 for Carbis Bay, 3 subsamples (450g container) were extracted from each site collecting at random spots within an arm length diameter giving a fair representation of micro plastics from those sites.

Plate 3 Satellite image of top teib beach, illustrating 5 sample sites (25 meters apart), map sourced with permission from Bing (2010) Microsoft Corporation

From each 450g container of sediment the micro plastics were separated from the sediment through a filtration method. Using a saline solution NaCl (260g), 1L deionised H2Oto create buoyancy which aided floatation to micro plastics and other low density materials. Then 50g of the sediment was added to 100ml of the saline solution into a 250ml separation funnel (Figure 1). This was manually oscillated for 1 minute and left to stand for a further minute. After which the sediment was drained from the funnel and collected in a beaker. The remaining supernatant was then filtered using a Buchner funnel and Whatman GF/A filters (Fig 2a; b) with the aid of a vacuum pump to accelerate the process.

The filters were placed and labelled in Petri-dishes and covered to prevent contamination and left to dry at room temperature (~20°C). The same sediment was re-suspended a further 2 more times. The process was repeated using the same process resulting in 3 filter papers per sample of sediment. With a fourth control filtration for every set of 3 filters processed. Therefore from each 450g container 3x50g were analysed the labelling strategy was: for Marazion, MZ A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, C3 and similar for Carbis Bay (CB).

Figure 1 (a) Separation funnels

4.2 Microscopic Analysis and FT-IR spectroscopy

Using a microscope (x 30) plastic fragments / fibres were identified and removed from the petri dish. Using precision forceps and transferred to new filter papers and Petri-dishes to be counted, circled, and stored. The micro-plastic polymers were identified with the use of the Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. Infrared radiation was passed through the sample where infrared radiation, absorbed and transmitted through the sample. This resulted in a molecular fingerprint represented by absorption and transmission. Similar to a fingerprint no two unique molecular structures generate the same infrared spectrum (Thermo Nicolet Corporation, 2001) which makes it useful in identifying different groups of compounds.

Figure 2 (a) Buchner funnel and vacuum pump, (b) Whatman GF/A filters.

The Brucker IFS 66 (Fig 3a) instrument was used to apply this principle. Micro plastic polymers were identified using the nearest common spectra of known compound polymers and matching them to the sample spectra polymers in an electronic library database (Thompson, 2004) (Fig 3b).

Figure 3 (a) FT-IR device, (b) Matching the sample spectra polymer in an electronic library database; red line represents the fibre sample being analysed, blue line represents spectra match on library database.

Section 4 Results

4.1 Microplastic abundance

The quantities of micro plastic fibre determined in sediments from both locations are shown below (Table 1). Due to time constraints and lack of access to sufficient equipment and the high numbers of micro plastics discovered in each Petri dish only 2 (A1 and B1) of each 3 sites at Marazion and Carbis Bay could be analysed. The sub sites were analysed for the total micro plastics found, mean and standard deviation.

Table 1 Microplastic fibre count from Marazion and Carbis Bay, showing mean, standard deviation (stdev) and total

MarazionCarbis Bay
Sub sitesSite 1Site 2Site 3Site 1Site 2Site 3
Subsamples(petridish)(50 g-1sediment)
A110861278
B110114948
A114138945
B1111713111310
A11212891112
B16861068
Mean10.511.57.510.07.58.5
Stdev2.73.43.11.33.72.3
Total636945604551

Table 2 Total micro plastic fibre abundance and percentage of fibres at each location

SiteTotal micro plastic fibre abundanceMicro plastic fibre %
Marazion17753.15
Carbis Bay15646.84
Total micro plastic fibres333

The microplastic fibres found at both locations as represented in Table 1 and Table 2 show that there is clear microplastic fibre concentrations which contaminate the littoral zone sediment.

4.2 Micro plastic statistical analysis

A box plot (Fig 4) was created on Minitab15 indicating the mean distribution of micro plastics concentrations of Marazion and Carbis Bay. The box plot shows that there does not seem to be any significant difference in the mean distribution of micro plastic between the two locations nor micro plastic abundance.

Figure 4, box plot indentifying mean micro plastic abundance and spread between M=Marazion and C=Carbis Bay

Firstly; to identify any significant difference in the mean value of spread between each site (Site1, Site 2, and Site 3) on each location an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test was performed in Excel using the following Hypothesis:

Null Hypothesis (H0): The underlying population of microplastic concentrations at Marazion follows a normal distribution

versus

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The underlying population of microplastic concentrations at Marazion does not follow a normal distribution

Anova: Single Factor :Marazion

SUMMARY
GroupsCountSumAverageVariance
Column 166310.57.1
Column 266911.511.5
Column 36457.59.5

ANOVA
Source of VariationSSdfMSFP-valueF crit
Between Groups522262.7758007120.0942633.68232
Within Groups140.5159.36666667

Total192.517

Table 3 ANOVA of single factor indicating P value between the sites 1, 2, and 3 taken from Marazion

It was found that the P-value = 0.09426 which is greater than P-value: 0.05: Therefore can conclude that there is not sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis indicating that the underlying populations of microplastic concentrations at Marazion are normally distributed.

The same test was performed for Carbis Bay using the following hypothesis:

Null Hypothesis (H0): The underlying population of micro plastic concentrations at Carbis Bay follows a normal distribution in general

versus

Alternative Hypothesis (H1): The underlying population of micro plastic concentrations at Carbis Bay does not follow a normal distribution in general

Anova: Single Factor: Carbis Bay

SUMMARY
GroupsCountSumAverageVariance
Column 1660101.6
Column 26457.513.9
Column 36518.55.5

ANOVA
Source of VariationSSdfMSFP-valueF crit
Between Groups1929.51.3571428570.2872483.68232
Within Groups105157

Total12417

Table 4 ANOVA of single factor indicating the P value between sites 1, 2 and 3 taken from Carbis Bay

It was found that the P-value = 0.28724 which is greater than P-value: 0.05: Therefore it can be concluded, that there is not sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis indicating that the underlying populations of micro plastic concentrations at Carbis Bay are normally distributed.

To identify if there was any significant difference in the mean population of micro plastics between the two locations (Marazion and Carbis Bay) a two sampled mean test assuming equal variance (T-test) was performed with the following hypothesis:

H0: There is no significant difference between the mean underlying population of micro plastic concentrations at Carbis Bay and Marazion in general

versus

H1: There is significant difference between the underlying population of micro plastic concentrations at Carbis Bay and Marazion in general.

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances

MarazionCarbis Bay
Mean9.8333333338.666666667
Variance11.323529417.294117647
Observations1818
Pooled Variance9.308823529
Hypothesized Mean Difference0
df34
t Stat1.147151152
P(T<=t) one-tail0.129663878 t Critical one-tail1.690924198 P(T<=t) two-tail0.259327756 t Critical two-tail2.032244498

Table 5, T-test of two sample means assuming equal variance indicating the P value between the means of the two locations, Marazion and Carbis Bay

It was found that the P-value= 0.259327756 which is greater than P-value: 0.05: Therefore it can be concluded, that there is not sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis indicating that the underlying populations of micro plastic concentrations at Carbis Bay and Marazion are not significantly different and in general it can be assumed they are the same. Figure 5 shows the overlap of means which further suggests there is no significant difference between sites.

Figure 5, T-test of two sample means indicating overlap of distribution

4.2 Polymer Identity

Of the 339 fibres counted, 144 were identified using the Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). This found that 46% of these were true-plastic, 20% part plastic (semi-synthetic), and 34% non-plastic, as indicated in Figure 6a.

Figure 6. (a) Total percentage of polymer identity broken down between true plastic, part plastic and non-plastic, (b) Total of individual polymers broken down into true plastic, part plastic and non-plastic

Figure 7 (a) Representing the total breakdown percentage of true microplastic fibres found at both locations, (b) A radar chart representing individual microplastic fibres found at both locations

From this data it is clear to identify as a percentage (Fig 6a) and individually (Fig 6b) that the true plastic is the most abundant micro plastic fibre on the littoral zone sediment, followed by non-plastic and semi plastic. True plastic abundance is represented in (Figure 7a; b) where the polymers have been broken down and indentified as acrylic (PMMA), nylon, acetate, polyamide, polyester, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and Petlon 4630..

The non-plastics were the second most abundant (36%) cellulose rayon fibre as shown in Figure 8a; b was found by far to have the highest concentrations overall. Which included; rayon tire chord 1650, viscose rayon filament, rayon staple, rayon monofilament, solution dyed rayon, and other cellulosic fibres that could relate to feminine hygiene products. Linen which was the second most abundant was recorded as natural pink linen, also identified was 70% rayon 30% rayon blend and white glass.

Figure 8 (a) Percentage of non-plastic polymers identified from both locations (b) Overall count of non-plastic polymers, from both figures the cellulose rayon fibre is most abundant.

Figure 9 (a) Percntage of overall semi-synthetic polymer fibres found at both locations (b) Overall count of semi-synthetic polymer fibers found at both locations

Figure 10, indicating the percentage of true plastics at (a) Marazion (b) Carbis Bay

Figure 11 Percentage of Non-plastic polymers found on (a) Marazion (b) Carbis Bay

The third most abundant as shown in Figure 6a;b is the semi-synthetic polymer fibre blend. Which found that the most profuse indicated in Figure 12a; b was the; 73% acrylic 23% wool blend followed by 55% silk 30% nylon 15% angora sweater and the least abundant padded envelope filler.Figure 12 Percentage of semi-synthetic polymers identified at (a) Marazion (b) Carbis Bay

From the data collected the percentage ratio of true plastics was relatively uniform between the sample locations however as shown in Figure 10a; 10b the percentage of polyethylene is significantly higher (almost double) of that found at Marazion. Also illustrated is the high percentage of nylon and acrylic polymer fibres found at Marazion. The percentages of non-plastics between both site locations appear to have no obvious differences between cellulosic rayon fibre and linen. However the sample site Carbis Bay has concentrations of 70% rayon 30% linen blend and padded envelope filler as indicated in Figure 12a; b. For semi-synthetic polymer fibres the 73% acrylic 23% wool blend appears to be the most abundant at Marazion. Whilst at Carbis Bay the concentrations of 55% silk 30% nylon 15% angora sweater blend and padded envelope filler are greater.

4.3 Control Results

A total of 18 blank control samples were analysed for contamination of polymers from the sample sites. The fibres were found, calculated and recognised using FT-IR spectroscopy therefore confirming risk of contamination and identifying potential sources.

Table 6 Blank controls of polymer identity and abundanceFigure 13 Percentage of blank control polymers

The results in Table 6 confirm the risk of contamination during the filtration process; however the blank controls do indicate that the total values were a very small percentage (1.20%) compared to the typical overall polymer fibres evaluated. As indicated Figure 13 above the main contaminant indentified was 70% rayon 30% linen blend which was found with the Carbis Bay blank filtration papers as was the rayon staple. Viscose rayon was indentified in relation to the Marazion blank filtration papers.

Section 5 Discussion

5.1 Fibre abundance

Initial results using the ANOVA test as mentioned in section 4 concluded that the total micro plastic fibre abundance throughout each individual location were normally distributed (Table 3, 4) This was also consistent with the follow up t-test analysis (Table 5) supporting the Null hypothesis; The micro plastic fibres between all site locations has no significant difference in distribution.

The most evident explanation for this similarity in distribution may be due to the geographical position of both locations which experience related forcing factors; the North coast is exposed to the Celtic Sea and the South coast is similarly exposed to the English Channel, where in both cases the wind direction is predominately blowing in from the Atlantic at a south westerly direction (Met Office (b), 2000). The tidal patterns for both the North and South coast follow a related semi diurnal trend. Shipping routes throughout the Atlantic Ocean, Celtic Sea and English Channel are habitual of the Cornish coast and consistently increasing (Fig 14) this corresponds with the global trend in the shipping trade (McElvaine, 2009).

Figure 14 indicating the location of major shipping ports and the increase in world imports sourced with permission John Vidal (2008)

Cornwall has significant economic developments in fisheries and tourism (Bradfield et al, 1976). This is generic of the coasts in the county. Illustrated in Figure 15 are the results from the UK Beach Survey (2009), indicating the major potential sources, of plastic pollution in different regions. It is clear in the Southwest that public and fishing variables are the main factors which attribute to plastic pollution.

Figure 15, Diagram depicts the amounts and sources of pollution found in different regions of the UK sourced with permission from the UK Beach Watch Survey Report (2009)

Similar forcing actions are assumed to be the most fitting explanation for the hypothesis. There is no significant distribution between micro plastic concentrations between the locations. However as only two locations were reviewed the data sets may have been too diminutive for a truthful analysis. The overall amount of micro plastic fibres discovered were a larger percentage of the total microfibres found (Fig 6). In addition the sample size of 50g of sediment is minute compared to the vast volume of sediment found at any one beach. The method of identification was also initially based on being able to differentiate the fibres by appearance. Which were usually brightly coloured and fibrous, this is thought to represent a small proportion of the micro plastic fibres in the environment. Further research into accurately quantifying the total fibres present is recommended (Thompson et al, 2009). Research carried out by Sea Education Association1986-2008 has reported on plastic micro debris being present in the waters from the British Isles to Iceland (Law, 2010).

Annual accumulation of all marine debris (predominantly plastic) on shores of selected islands with year.

Figure 16 Annual accumulation of all marine debris (predominantly plastic) on shores of selected islands with year. Data for Bird I. and Signy I. are from Walker et al. (1997); Convey et al. (2002) and CCAMLR. Data for Tern I. are from Morishige et al. (2007) and for the UK from Beachwatch 2006 (MCS 2007). Sourced with permission from Barnes D K A et al. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2009;364:1985-1998

Figure 7 Update of of Beachwatch Survey (2009) which effectivelyillustrates beach litter levels have been steadily increasing since 1994, despite yearly variations sourced from with permission Beachwatch 2009 (MCS, 2011)

Studies by Thompson et al; 2004; 2006, Brown 2009; Scontus, 2011, Travis, 2011; Colton, 1974; have also conclusively shown evidence of micro plastic debris in the marine environment. Figure 15 illustrates plastic debris that have been found in the Antarctic, Sub-Antarctic, Tropical Pacific Ocean and the Temporal Atlantic. The Quantities of plastic debris appear to have stabilised. However this could indicate that inputs of plastic debris may be declining but the debris already in the ocean is continually being deposited on the shore or seabed (Brown et al, 2011). Figure 17 illustrates that plastic debris is steadily increasing on the shorelines of the UK despite annual variations (MCS. 2011).

Despite the vast institution of study sites, irregularity of sampling, differing protocol and observers, has resulted in a very small amount of datasets spanning for more than a decade (Barnes & Milner 2005). Therefore the distribution of plastic particles in the marine environment is fundamentally lacking in research (GESAMP, 2010).

5.2 Microfibre Identitity

The majority of microscopic fibres identified using FT-IR spectroscopy demonstrated in Figure 6 showed that true plastics were the most persistent overall with polyethylene contributing to the highest concentrations (35%). Polyethylene was discovered in 1933 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett at the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI). Which was evolved into two forms, low density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene (LDPE), polyethylene is cheap, flexible, durable, and chemically resistant and is the most widely used plastic. Polyethylene has an annual production of approximately 80 million metric tons (Piringer and Baner, 2008). LDPE is used to make films and packaging materials, including plastic bags while HDPE is used more often to make containers, and automotive fittings.

Concentrations of polyethylene were highest at Carbis Bay. An explanation of this could be related to tourist activities from the use of plastic drinks bottles, plastic food containers, plastic toiletries bottles, plastic caps / lids, cigarette lighters / tobacco pouches, combs / hair brushes / sunglasses, crisp / sweet / lolly / sandwich wrappers, cutlery / trays / straws / cups, pens, plastic shoes / sandals (MCA Beach Report, 2009). The Carbis Bay and St Ives area are holiday hotspots which have a high reliance on the tourist industry for its economy. This is evident by the high number of tourist related shops and food outlets within the area. The tourist industry makes up around a quarter of the economy estimated to contribute as much as 24% of the County’s GDP (Cornwall Tourism Board). Five million tourists visit Cornwall each year, mostly drawn from within the UK.

Fishing in this area is also an economic foundation on which there is local reliance. There are 1,148 fishermen employed in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly. Newlyn is the largest fishing port in England, in terms of value. In 2000 landed ?18.1 million of fish (Fishing Industry Task Force, 2010). The primary synthetic compounds used in the fishing industry are polyamide (nylon), polyester, polyethylene, and polypropylene (Pruter, 1987). This could also explain the concentrations of nylon concentrations which were highest at Marazion. Other sources of true plastic fibres identified were varied ‘acetate’. This has industrial uses such as cigarette and other filters and ink reservoirs for fibre tip pens. Each cigarette filter has more than 12 000 white fibres. That contains the delustrant titanium dioxide. The fibres are made of cellulose acetate, a synthetic plastic-like substance. During production a plasticiser, triacetin (glycerol triacetate), is applied to bond the fibres (Pauly et al 2002). In 2009 the Ocean Conservancy data revealed that over three million (3,216,991) cigarette filters were removed internationally from beaches and inland waterways as part of the annual International Coastal Cleanup (ICC, 2009). During the Annual Beachwatch (2009) litter survey a total of 11,670 cigarette filters were found. Ranking it in the top 10 most littered items nationally. This could therefore be a major source of acetate fibre found on the two locations. Polyester, acrylic and polymide were found to be relatively uniform at both locations (Fig 10a; b) these polymers are used in apparel including many forms of clothing, home furnishings: carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillow cases, wall coverings, and upholstery. Other usesare hoses, power belting, ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto upholstery and sails (Fibresource, 2010). The potential sources for these polymers as well as from the fishing and tourist industry could be related to shipping (Fig 15) which includes fish boxes, fishing line, fishing net and net pieces < 50 cm, fishing net and net pieces > 50 cm, floats (fishing buoys) / reels, plastic lobster / crab pots and tops rope / cord / string , rubber boots, heavy duty gloves, tyres with holes/rope, fishing weights / hooks and lures (Beach Watch Report 2009). The wide range of sources of identified polymers suggests that the fragments have resulted from the breakdown of larger items (Thompsen et al, 2004).

Out of the non-plastic fibres identified rayon deemed most abundant (Fig 11a; b). This could be due to its many applications; clothing, furnishings and industrial uses in medical surgery products, tie chord and other uses such as feminine hygiene products and diapers ( Fibresource, 2010). The admiral data charts sourced from Edina marine digimap for Carbis Bay and Marazion illustrated outlet pipes from those immediate areas (Appendices 3a,4a) and extended areas (Appendices 3b;4b). However due to the large scale of the coastline the admiral chart could not indicate other possible outlets pipes that could be potential sources for sewage related pollution. Like that of plastics rayon has a highly absorbent quality. That could indicate that it may also have the ability to absorb and transport persistent organic contaminants (Teuten et al, 2007). Rayon manufacture today utilizes the viscose process. This dates to the early 1900s, with most of the growth in production occurring between 1925 and 1955. In the early stage, production was mainly textile filament. The invention of modifiers in 1947 brought on super tire cords and initiated the beginning of the high-performance rayon fibres (Fibresource, 2010). This extensive time in production may also be a contributing factor for the concentrations found. However despite these possible explanations, there was not sufficient data analysed. To establish if micro plastic fibre distribution shows a discrepancy from that of other fibres (semi-synthetic and non-plastic). The micro fibres identified in the blank controls were of rayon and rayon blend origin. This could be from a number of sources. However clothing is thought to be the most plausible explanation for contamination during the separation filtration process.

5.3 Comparison of other studies of micro fibre identity and distribution

As mentioned in the previous section the amount of available comparative data is limited due to for mentioned factors. However research carried out by Thompson et al (2004) who identified micro plastic fibres in sedimentary habitats ranging from 0.5- 6 fibres 50ml-1sediment. It was found that subtidal habitats have significantly higher concentrations. However the abundance was consistent amongst beaches and estuarine habitat types. Out of all micro fibres identified Thompson et al (2004) reported that one third was of true plastic origin. The results in Figure 6 illustrates that true micro plastic abundance is larger than that discovered by Thompson et al, (2004). Where a significant percentage of the overall fibres collected were of true plastic origin.

To assess long-term trends in abundance Thompson et al (2004) also examined plankton species that have been collected consistently since the 1960’s along routes between Aberdeen and the Shetlands; and from Sule Sherry to Iceland. They discovered that plastics were archived with the plankton samples back to the 1960’s but with significant abundance overtime. This can be related to the growth in plastic production (Thompson et al (2004). In the same study it was found that similar polymer types were present in the water column. The research demonstrates the advanced spatial extent and accumulation of plastic as a contaminant (Thompson et al, 2004). This also suggests that polymer density cannot attribute as a major cause influencing distribution. However a change in the type of polymer entering the ocean could affect observed amounts of plastic debris. Density analysis of plastic samples collected at the sea surface showed that 99% were less dense than seawater. These properties were consistent of polyethylene and polypropylene (Moret-Ferguson, 2010; as cited in Lavender-Law et al 2010). This suggests that distribution and abundance within the marine environment consider the polymer type as a variable.

A report by Brown et al (2009) indicates that 80% of plastics in the Tamar valley UK are microscopic particles. In Los Angeles watershed microscopic plastics accounted for 90% of total debris found (Moore et al, 2008). One of the main sources of plastic in the marine environment is thought to be fishing related. As plastic is a major component of fishing materials it appears prevalent in fishing areas (Galgani et al , 2000). Fishing gear was thought to be the dominant source of plastic in Caifornia (Moore and Allen, 2000) in Eastern China up to 72% (Lee et al (2006) and in the Celtic Sea 65% of all debris found were fishing related plastic debris (Galgani et al 2000)

Figure 18 Chart indicating the abundance of microplastics blue bars illustrate Sardinia results purple bars illustrate Cornwall results.

A comparative study only on the abundance of micro plastic fibre was performed with fibres collected from Sardinia Scontus (2011).The above results (Fig 18) suggest that there are higher concentrations of microplastics found at the Sardinian locations compared to that of Cornwall. This could be due to a multitude of factors such as; tourism which is one of the most important revenues of income for many Mediterranean countries. However, tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year (Kocasoy, 1995). Who continues to report that this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats such as erosion and pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts. In addition several of the world’s most demanding shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the Mediterranean Sea each year. This is estimated to be around one third of the world’s total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which could result in severe damage to the marine environment (Horsman, 1982).

A similar study was conducted by Travis (2011) at the location of Challaborough in Devon UK ( Grid reference: SX 64891 44789). This comparison of data (Fig 19a; b) was useful in illustrating the multitude of micro plastic polymers that can be found on any one site in a similar region.

Figure 13 Ilustrating the types of polymers (%) found at: Challaborough (b) Cornwall, the polymers that are of the same type have been separated from the main body of the chart.

Though there is differences in the types of polymers found there are similarities between the abundance of polyethylene at both locations. Challaborough like that of Carbis Bay is a popular tourist destination and has a strong recreational value for surfing and other water sports. This could indicate that the high concentrations of polyethylene are linked to public litter as discussed in section 5.2.

5.4 Comparison of Global Plastic Pollution

A study by Ng and Obbard (2006) recognised synthetic polymers in beach sediment. The study revealed using FT-IR spectroscopy polymer types as: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon, polyvinyl alcohol, and acrylonitite butadiene styrene. The greatest quantities were found at two popular tourist beaches in the Eastern part of Singapore. The plastics ranged from 0-4 per sample replicate. This was consistent with a study by Thompson et al (2004) who recorded similar quantities along the sedimentary coasts of the Atlantic. These plastics were assumed to be sourced from ongoing waste-disposal from industries, recreational activities, and discharge from shipping (Ng and Obbard (2006).

Research by Pichel (2007) collected marine debris within the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre Convergence Zone (STCZ). This study revealed over 11800 individual pieces. This included 122 derelict fishing nets. The largest concentrations were found north of the North Pacific Transition Zone Chlorophyll Front (TZCF). In a study by Moore et al (2001) in the North Pacific Central Gyre. Revealed that the abundance and mass of plastic found in the neuston layer were the largest ever recorded anywhere in the Pacific Ocean. They counted 334271 pieces per km2 and 5114 g km2. The mass of the plastic was approximately 6 times that of the plankton collected. The most evident types of polymers identified were; thin films, polypropylene/ monofilament line and unidentified plastic of which were miscellaneous fragments (Moore et al 2001).

Colton et al (1974) found plastic debris at differing locations in the North Western Atlantic ranging from 1,292-166,991 individual pieces per km2. The types of plastic found were polystyrene spherules, polyethylene, Styrofoam, plastic sheets and miscellaneous plastic. In a report by Carpenter and Smith (1972) in the Sargasso Sea surface layer, plastic debris averaged 3500 per km2. The plastic debris was reported widespread throughout the Western Sargasso Sea. The plastics identified were not polystyrene, acrylic or polyvinyl chlorides polymers. They were mainly identified as white pellets.

Accumulation rates of plastic debris vary considerably. This is due to variables such as urban settlements, shore use, prevailing-wind and ocean currents, and region (Brown et al, 2009). In the 1909’s it was reported that mega and mega plastic debris in the northern hemisphere were increasing. However these quantities have stabilised over the last decade (Brown et al, 2009). Who continues to report that on the shoreline quantities are increasing. This could indicate that the amount of debris entering the ocean could be declining, but the plastic already in the environment is continually being deposited on the shore or seabed. In the Southern Hemisphere accumulation appears to be much lower but still increasing at a steady rate. Studies by Brown et al (2009) suggest that on remote Antarctic islands and ocean areas plastic accumulation will stabilize over the last decade.

A report by Zarll and Matthies (2010) in a study on plastic fluxes in the Arctic Ocean has suggested that plastic is transported through; Cold ocean currents from the Bering Strait, The Fraim Strait where the water is saline and warm and the North Atlantic current. The report estimated that the plastic mass varies between 16,200 -1.9 million tons per annum (Zarfll and Matthies, 2010). This variation in mass can be explained by a multitude of reasons:

Spatial heterogeneity; where plastic is extended through the ocean surfaces depending on location such as urban and industrial areas. The ocean current transfers the floating plastic debris, which is influenced by wind and relief of the seabed.

Temporal variability; as plastic production has increased over the years. This had led to an increase in release of plastics to the marine environment.

Different sampling methods; the measurements have differing methods and assess varying types of sizes, therefore resulting in different counts.

In a study by Lavender-Law et at (2010) in a plankton net tow in the western North Atlantic and Carrabean Sea. A total of 64000 plastic pieces were counted out of 6100 surface plankton tows. In one 30 minute tow found 1069 plastic pieces. This is equivalent to 580,000 pieces km-2. The highest concentrations were found in large-scale Sub-tropical convergence within the surface velocity field (Lavender-Law et al, 2010). That was created by Eckman currents and geostrophic circulation. This zone extends across most of the Subtropical North Atlantic basin (Maximenko et al, 2009). This was reported to coincide with the highest concentrations of plastic counted (Lavender- Law et al, 2010). This indicated that plastic distribution and floating debris can act as a tracer of large scale surface currents (Lavender-Law et al, 2010). The same study using satellite-tracked drifting buoys, for the purpose of tracking potential pathways, in and out of the central region in the North Atlantic. It was discovered that plastic entering the US population centres could contaminate an area more than 1000km offshore (Zarfll and Matthies).

The global distribution of plastic pollutants as discussed above varies considerably because of the influence from a multitude of factors. There is evidence of micro plastics in the marine environment but few studies have been considered in the marine sediment which makes comparison difficult.

5.5 Environmental Impacts

On the shorelines exposure to abrasion and photo-degradation are prolonged. This makes plastics more brittle and fragmented in this environment. Some of the first pioneering research came from the examination of the gut content from sea birds (Albatross) in the 1960’s (Kenyon and Kridler, 1969). In the 1970’s micro plastics were found in plankton species in the North Sea (Buchanan, 1971).

There is evidence to suggest that one million sea birds and 100,000 marine mammals and sea turtles perish annually worldwide, due to entanglement in or eating plastic debris found in the sea (OSPAR, 2010). In a study 12% of Gannet corpses that were found in the North Sea were found entangled in plastic. In a related study found that 9% of the sea birds in the North Sea had ingested plastic fragments, from feeding on litter with 55% of birds having >0.1g apparent in the gut (OSPAR, 2010). In 1999 a study found that 90% of Gannet nests in the Bristol Channel on the Island of Grassholm now contain plastic debris (Library House of Commons, 2010).

Plastics are not biodegradable and once introduced into the environment can remain indefinitely. Once macro plastics are broken down by mechanical processes they can be ingested by marine organisms often mistaking them for food. Upon digestion, it is possible for smaller fragments of plastic to present a physical hazard. This can happen through clogging feeding appendages or the digestive system (Derraik, 2002).

The environmental impacts of micro plastic/fibres can pose serious potential threats to marine organisms by attracting, holding, and transporting water pollutants (Teuten et al 2007). This research is in its infancy. However there is long standing knowledge that macro plastics can sicken and kill fish, birds, and other marine organisms. Research has shown that A marina which was exposed to phenathrene found that just a few millionth of a gram of contaminated micro plastics in sediments caused an 80% increase of phenathrene in the tissues of the worms (Teuten et al 2007). This study suggests that since the A Marina is at the very base of the food web contaminants from micro plastics could be passed on and biomagnified in other marine organisms. Recent studies by BIOCET (2006) revealed that persistent organic pollutants (POP’s) are found in harbour porpoises, common dolphins, bottlenose dolphins and harbour seals. This study was conducted on the coasts of the ; Celtic Sea, NW Scotland, North Sea, Southern North Sea, Western Channel and Bay of Biscay. The POP levels found in the female common dolphin were shown to be linked to diet, area, and reproductive status. Additional research by Thompson et al (2004) shows that a variety of organisms with differing feeding habits (sediment feeders, filter feeders), have all shown to ingest plastic fragments/ fibres. The results of these trials indicates that ingestion of contaminant-sorbed plastics, have the potential to be a pathway of contaminant transport to benthic organisms

Another potential threat to the marine environment is that plastic debris including micro plastics could transport invasive and alien species (Derraik, 2002; Moore, 2001) such as bacteria, diatoms, algae, barnacles, serpulids, hydroids, tunicates, and bryozoans (Winston, 1982; Derraik, 2002). These species could pose serious harmful impacts on native biodiversity on a global scale to littoral, intertidal and shoreline ecosystems (Gordon 2006).

The current levels of production as discussed in section 1, and the quantities already in the environment it is a concern that the abundance of plastic fragments will continue to rise into the projected future (Brown et al (2011). This therefore needs a multitude of research regarding the modelling of environmental consequences of plastic debris and the production of environmental risk assessment models. This would assist in predicting the transport range of contaminants in plastic fragments of common polymers (Thompson et al 2005; Teuten et al, 2007).

Section 6 Conclusion

The mass production of plastic has transformed the world beyond that of urban developments. Plastics of all types and sizes have been found from Europe and Arctic Island shores to Tropical seabeds. Studies have also shown that plastics have been found in birds nest, through to the digestive systems in numerous marine species. The quantities of plastics fluctuate between countries. Despite this overall estimates report that 10% of solid waste is plastic. It has also been mentioned that 80% of this waste that accumulates on land, shorelines, ocean surfaces, and the seabed is plastic. The most common items are that of primary and secondary packaging which includes plastic bags which are chiefly polyethylene. Fishing equipment has also been found in significant quantities which are predominantly of nylon (PMMA) origin. The quantites of plastic debris have appeared to have stabilised in the oceans over the decade. But have increased on the shorelines. This could suggest that quantities of debris entering the sea are declining. However the plastic debris already present in the sea is still being deposited on the shorelines or seabed. Accumulation rates are lower in the Southern Hemisphere but are still significantly increasing. Other evidence, suggests stabilisation over the last decade in the Antarctic Islands and oceans. Beaches, ocean surfaces, and enclosed seas support the largest densities. However research has shown higher accumulation rates in deeper waters stretching hundreds of kilometres from the coast. Even though there is better knowledge today about the sources, quantities, and distribution there is still little understood about the longevity of plastic in the marine environment and the impacts it may have on organisms.

The review has indicated that there is evidence suggesting that micro plastics have the potential to have negative impacts on marine organisms and ecosystems. However this research is still in development with need for broader research on uncertainties such as; plasticizers since even though research in the laboratory coincide with natural environmental concentrations and the possibility looks likely to have some impact on wild populations, full research studies investigating the population effects, have not been reported (Oehlmann et al, 2009). The transportation of POP contaminants with regard to sorption and leaching is not fully understood (Teuten, 2007). There are also gaps in knowledge to determine the precise impacts of micro plastics acting as sinks for these contaminants in the world’s oceans (Arthur et al, 2009). A worldwide cooperation between researchers giving the policymakers the best information possible on the current status of micro plastics (Weisman 2009), is required to also determine the life cycle of micro plastics in varying marine environments with regard for the assessment of ecosystem-level impacts (Arthur et al, 2009). Data is scarce to demonstrate the negative impacts of micro plastics on marine organisms. This is notably the most prevalent knowledge gap to fill. Further suggestions would be to research into collection methods, species impacts and removal methods on prospective micro plastic hotspots already known.

There is little being done in the way of reducing the release of plastics into the environment. There is some evidence that the temporal trends of macro plastics on remote islands has reduced because of regulations for reduced dumping at sea. In 1991 in retort to the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) study. Industries compiled a voluntary institute program to prevent or recapture spilled pellets. This effort to reduce plastic input indicated measurable success in reducing land-based sources of contaminant (Lavender-Law et al, 2010). Marine pollution is a local, national, regional and international concern therefore management and policy needs to be implemented at these varying levels. These also need to be adopted to the appropriate systems such as terrestrial and marine based sources of pollution. One of the biggest problems with water pollution is its transboundary nature. Many rivers cross countries, while seas span whole continents. Pollution discharged by factories in one country with low environmental quality standards can cause problems in neighbouring nations, even when they have more stringent laws and higher standards. Environmental laws can make more difficult for people to pollute, but to fully achieve success they have to operate across national and international borders

The findings in this report suggest that micro plastics are widespread worldwide and do have a potential environmental threat. Society should not overlook these impacts. The sustained demand for plastic indicates that contamination of the environment by micro plastics is fixed to increase particularly that of economically developing countries. The negative environmental impacts should be carefully measured to prevent, inadvertent release, magnification and transport of contaminants (Thompson et al, 2009)

Section 7 Recommendations

One of the main dilemmas using the FT-IR spectroscopy for identification of polymers was that even though it has the potential to identify thousands of polymers to the spectra available on the library database it has limitations. This can arise from two potential causes; Firstly the composition of the fibre could be too degraded and weathered in comparison to the original true fibre which may be less degraded therefore the radiation absorbed could be different from that used for the library standard. Secondly blended fibres were problematic and time consuming as they were difficult to identify and correlate as an accurate match to the library database

Rayon and cellulostic fibres were discussed in relation to feminine hygiene products. Applicator tampons are made from 100% rayon or a mixture of rayon and conventional cotton, overwrapped with polypropylene, a by-product of the petroleum industry (Natracare , 2011). The applicator tubes of many brands are often made from plastic. One of the chemical groups found in this plastic are phthalates.Though it is not conclusive, phthalates and oestrogens such as estradiol could be analysed in the fibres to observe if there is a potential connection.

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Introduction:

The environment surrounding us is precious and of high importance for every individual, yet people and processes are causes of the highest amount of harm to the environment. As the areas surrounding us get filled up with waste, chemicals, noise, pollution, and other harmful gases, it becomes increasingly difficult to live in such areas. Moreover, these areas lose their natural beauty. Harmful chemicals, pollution, and the inappropriate disposal of waste material also causes severe harm to the forestry and the trees surrounding an area and leads to the reduction of clean air or oxygen prevalent in the area. Thus, people and other living things must succumb to breathing in carbon dioxide and other harmful gases. Such polluted environments are not only harmful to the betterment of the planet but are also highly toxic for human beings, animals, plants, and all living organisms. Thus, substantially reducing the quality of life for living things and their prospects for leading a healthy life (Gerlagh & Mathys, 2011).

While much of the pollution and harm to the environment is caused by individuals during the course of living in their own homes through the use of toxic chemicals such as body sprays, hair sprays, cooking oils, the use of their cars, inappropriate disposal of waste and lack of recycling; a large amount of harm to the environment is caused by businesses and industries. Businesses adopt processes of production and research and development which may lead to the accumulation of high amounts of waste material, release of toxic chemicals, inappropriate disposal of recyclable material, and large emissions of smoke and pollution from factory areas amongst many other forms of harming the environment. (Fredrikson,1995).

Businesses, in the process of mass production, are likely to harm the environment in substantial ways besides the smoke and pollution emissions from factory areas. Other common ways of bringing harm to the environment include using non-renewable resources in production without proper planning and control. Cutting down trees to build industrial and shopping areas is also another form of harm to the environment. Businesses and industries may also use parts of endangered species in order to facilitate their production process or as an input into their products. Animal testing is also a common method used by businesses which often gives rise to substantial levels of criticism. However, many or most of these effects are necessary or inevitable when businesses indulge in production and research processes. (Antweiker et al, 2001). Yet, many can be controlled to a large extent. However, businesses are unwilling to put in that extra amount of effort and money to ensure that their processes and the materials they use are environmentally-friendly (Grieg et al, 2005).

Corporate Social Responsibility:

Corporate social responsibility is another highly popular business practice that many businesses now aim to implement either to fulfill their own personal vision regarding the type of impact they should have on the environment or because they want to ensure that their reputation remains clean and high in the eyes of their consumers. Often, applying socially responsible techniques leads to higher levels of investment or cost as close consideration must be made when choosing appropriate materials, applying appropriate processes, and implementing other supervisory and control procedures. However, many consumers and the media, especially in developed countries, demand that organizations act in an ethically acceptable and socially responsible manner. This includes caring for the environment and ensuring that their business processes do not cause excessive harm to the environment. This is often done by controlling the amount of emissions coming from a factory, controlling the types of inputs that are put into products, using recyclable material and encouraging recycling, helping the preservation of endangered species and refraining from using animal testing, and implementing an appropriate waste disposal procedure amongst innumerous other actions (Landes, 1998).

However, while corporate social responsibility practices may be a norm in developed countries, they may be considered a luxury in the Third World. With many other problems plaguing the people of such countries, there is no control over the manner in which the environment is harmed in Third World countries. Waste is often disposed of outside factory gates or in empty land sites in residential areas without considering the filth and diseases that such waste material contains for the people living in nearby areas. Water and air is highly polluted in industrial and factory areas as business owners are mainly concerned with their own profit and are not concerned about the well-being of people surrounding that area. There are no regulations or control on such practices which force individuals living in such countries to live sub-standard or low quality lives. The amount of noise pollution caused by businesses is highly negligible as that is only the beginning of the environmental problems prevalent in these countries (Toffel et al, 1998). Oil spills and highly dangerous chemicals are often found in areas around factories and in other landfills which are often a cause for death to people or children who are found in those areas. Recycling is not highly practiced in organizations in Third World countries and there is no regard for the proper use of non-renewable resources (Bierman, 2003).

Global Regulatory Policies:

There is a very strong need for proper regulation in order to control the manner in which businesses and industries affect the environment around them and the manner in which they dispose of their waste materials. This is a prevailing problem in many parts of the world and is also an existing problem in developed countries. There are still many businesses who have not succumbed to following appropriate environmentally friendly practices. Depletion of the ozone layer, losing the fertility of soil, and permanently polluting the environment with antioxidants are just some of the highly harmful effects that can exist because of the malpractices that businesses engage in. In order to prevent the occurrence of such effects, there needs to be a proper regulation system in place. As the problem of harm to the environment is a global issue as it is highly important for the whole planet to remain free from harm, there may be a need for a global regulatory regime or policy to govern the environmental practices of businesses (Cassesse, 2010).

Global regulatory policies are often used to govern other aspects of human existence such as the relationship between countries, human rights, trade, and other such areas which involve practices worldwide. Global regulatory regimes are often made with a consensus of all the countries involved and require the assent of their leaders to implement such policies within their own country. Different countries are likely to have different policies regarding environmental control, and have their own set of laws which govern their particular borders regarding how to prevent environmental damage. However, there have been occurrences of international treaties in which numerous countries participated in order to mutually attempt to bring benefit to the environment (Abbott, 2012).

Previous Environmental Laws:

Law governing the environmental aspect of society is known as environmental law. Many such laws have been passed in the United States in the past such as the National Environmental Policy (1969), the Clean Air Act (1970), the Clean Water Act (1972), and the Endangered Species Act (1973). The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 aimed to ensure that all activities whether federal or private must be assessed and evaluated on the pretense of their effect upon the environment and their subsequent influence upon the surroundings around them. This meant that any project in the United States excluding those performed by the President or Congress were to be assessed to ensure that they did not cause immense harm to the environment. This act was implemented when concerns for the environment began to increase and people became more conscious of the effects that their actions caused upon the environment. The Clean Air act of 1970 aimed to ensure that the air remained clean and emissions and the release of gases was controlled in order to prevent toxic emissions or the release of a high amount of antioxidants Industries and factories were given permits in order to control the amount of emissions they could release and they were heavily penalized if they exceeded the specified amount of emissions allowed to them. There were also days on which emissions were not allowed from factories and businesses were made to seize production in order to let the air remain clean for specific periods of time (Avant et al, 2010).

While the above mentioned laws were specific to the United States, there have been laws which governed the whole world at large. Some of these laws are known as customary laws and have become such common practice that it is considered necessary for all countries to be bound by them. These laws are often upheld by authorities such as the United Nations. Such laws are usually laid out after world conferences in the United Nations and examples include the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, World Commission on Environment and Development, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. and the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Protocols are also made between countries which are subsidiary agreements made from the main treaty. These smaller agreements govern certain aspects of the main agreement and put forward additional requirements that must be followed in addition to the main agreement. Some of the most popular protocols include the Kyota Protocol and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Bierman & Bernd, 2009).

Accordingly, many international organizations are also made which seek to implement such environmental goals of which some of the most popular ones include International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Hence, there are many platforms for making international laws and global regulatory regimes in order to promote the environmental cause. Moreover, such actions have been taken before and there are many laws in place governing such issues. (Keohane, 2010).

Benefits and Prospects of Adopting a Global Regulatory Regime:

Hence, the prospects of adopting a global regulatory regime are quite high as many countries are now mutually concerned regarding the environment and the effects that businesses and industries have upon their countries. Moreover, due to high awareness levels and a lot of media coverage, individuals, businesses, and specifically multinational organizations seek to focus upon the implementation of safe and fair practices for the environment and seek help and support in this regard. There are organizations and international committees which work for this cause and serve as a platform to bring many countries of the world together to discuss important issues Accordingly, as it is often said that brainstorming and consultation can lead to better solutions, the adoption of a global regulatory regime allows the leaders and prominent personalities of the world to mutually decide what is beneficial for their country and the world at large (Keohane, 1984).

As the whole planet technically belongs to all individuals and the actions of one country are likely to affect the whole planet, it is also important for there to be a mutual consensus regarding the practices prevalent in different countries across the globe. For example, the USA’s excessive use of aerosol sprays has depleted the ozone layer and this has eventually affected global warming in the whole world. In the same manner, the excess of pollution in the air and other toxic chemicals affect processes such as rain, global warming, and the prevalence of clean water for multiple countries who share borders and water facilities through the use of rivers. Hence, while one country may adopt principles to govern the environmental aspect in their own country, they may not be completely aware of the effect that practices in their own country are having upon other countries and vice versa. Thus, it may be more beneficial to discuss these problems together and on a global platform in order to come up with mutually feasible solutions (Scott, 1998).

Accordingly, the feasibility and previous implementation of a global regulatory regime for the environment may be high, yet it is a highly difficult procedure and program to successfully implement and ensure that it is abided by. Thus, there may be several problems associated with the adoption of a global regulatory regime and the attempt to implement it in all countries of the world (Wilson, 1991).

Problems with the Adoption of a Global Regulatory Regime:

One of the most troubling problems of adopting a global regulatory regime or attempting to implement it is the setting up of an authority to ensure implementation and supervise the regime. It is literally impossible for a regulatory committee to be physically present in all parts of all countries governed by the regime, thus it becomes nearly impossible for such committees to supervise and check whether the laws governing this regime are followed in all parts of all countries. Accordingly, it is not possible or easy to maintain a proper check and balance on the laws governing this global regime and it is not possible to detect offenders easily. If there is no proper way to uphold the regulations in the regime, the regime is likely to be highly ineffective (Wilson, 1991).

Moreover, there needs to be a proper way to punish countries which do not follow the regime properly and do not uphold the laws described in it. It may be highly difficult to decide upon a punishment for such countries and even more difficult to implement such a punishment. It may also be easy for countries with higher levels of influence to avoid punishment. Another very tantalizing aspect is to decide upon the judiciary who will preside over such cases and maintain a fair and balanced system. This is highly difficult to implement on a global scale (Sim & Teoh, 1997).

The costs associated with implementing the system and maintaining a committee for check and balance purposes will be quite high and may be considered unnecessary by many countries. This may also be considered a waste of time and effort by many world leaders and it is highly difficult to arrive at a mutually agreed upon decision. Moreover, the drafting of policies governing the global regulatory regime is likely to be a highly rigorous process which is likely to take a lot of contemplation, argument, and debate. There are not likely to be many occasions on which all countries agree or cooperate and such procedures cannot be forced upon countries which do not agree. Treaties are made by mutual consent and obtaining mutual consent is likely to be the major problem prevailing in the implementation of such policies (Feigener, 1997).

Many countries argue and debate for long periods of time concerning the applicability of customary laws towards themselves. Many countries want to be free from having to abide by such laws and put up issues in United Nations meetings. Hence, if the application of customary laws becomes a matter of debate, the adoption of a global regulatory regime is likely to become a matter of intense or perhaps never-ending debate (Sadiq & Governortori, 2010).

There are costs associated with the implementation of environmental controls and these costs are likely to be high. Hence, all countries may not be willing to implement these costs within their respective country as it may be burdening upon their budget and they may have other concerns for which to allocate their national budget to. Due to the associated costs, many countries refrain from indulging in environmentally friendly practices and this includes countries such as the United States of America. Moreover, many world leaders may consider these extra costs to be unnecessary and burdensome for the economy. It will obviously take extra expenditure on the part of each country separately in order to ensure that regulatory practices are implemented within their own country. Hence, many leaders consider this to be unnecessary expenditure and do not express their consent to indulge in such excessive expenditure.

One of the most important reasons for the difficulty in adopting a global environmental regulatory regime is that the circumstances of all countries are different. While the citizens of some countries are educated and aware of the need for an environmental cause, the citizens of other countries are not aware of such problems and have other bigger problem plaguing their nation. Moreover, while some developed countries have the resources and equipment needed to implement environmental controls, other poorer nations of the world completely lack such facilities and cannot support such regimes.

Environmental problems affecting different countries are also of diverse natures but it is widely known that developing countries require even more regulatory controls than developed nations as the atmosphere in their countries is highly dangerous for the citizens of the country and leads to many deaths annually. Moreover, awareness programs and other initiatives are required in such countries in order to at least make the situation satisfactory if not excellent. However, these goals and others concerning the environment seem to be a long way away from being fully achieved (Baumgartner & Winter, 2013).

Conclusion and Recommendations:

While it is not easy to adopt a global regulatory regime, countries can hold annual conferences in order to discuss environmental issues and attempt to mutually solve the environmental concerns arising (Nielson & Jensen, 2013). Countries who do agree upon implementation of environmental controls can sign treaties and agreements in order to make the implementation of such procedures official. They can also attempt to have talks with the leaders of other countries and provide support for the successful implementation of environmental controls and regulatory regimes in these countries. Support can be through manpower, delegations, or financial aid in order to help other countries conform to the laws governing environmental concerns. However, countries who do not agree upon the implementation of such controls cannot be forced to consider them (Henri & Jornalt, 2010).

Serious offenders or countries which are severely damaging the environment can be reprimanded through boycotts from other countries, cutting off of trade, foreign aid, or through other means. However, it is necessary to consider the country’s circumstances before such severe consequences are applied and talks should be carried out in order to solve such issues (Fuerist & Mcallister, 2011).

Hence, a global regulatory regime can be applied towards some countries of the world but is extremely difficult to apply on all countries of the world and can be considered impossible to some extent.[1] However, there are manners in which countries can take initiatives as a combined body to help the environmental cause and promote the campaign against environmental harm caused by industries and businesses worldwide (Tessitore et al, 2010).

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Introduction

The main aim of this paper is to present a proposal on the environmental scanning in the strategic management context. This proposal will demonstrate the main aims and objectives along with the background of the chosen organizationIt will further propose the rationale for the environmental scanning technique. The methodology section will explore the main tools, which will aid in the collection of the necessary data.

Background

It is proposed to analyse the charitable organization, which is based at Nottingham University, namely NUSA (Nottingham University Samworth Academy). This organization specializes in fundraising on the global scale (NUSA Official Website, 2012). The main unique selling point is attributed to the fact that this organization acknowledges the great power of social media and technology. This implies that the fundraising activities are maintained by means of social and interactive promotions. Additionally, this organization is using for – profit approach, which suggests that the fundraising activities generate revenue for NUSA (NUSA Official Website, 2012).

Aim and Objectives

The aim is identified in order to provide the guidelines for the research proposal (Saunders et al., 2009).

The main aim of this proposal is to explore the benefits and disadvantages of the key environmental scanning techniques in the strategic management context. The smaller objectives include:

To contrast and compare the environmental scanning techniques
To identify the main environmental scanning technique that would be beneficial in the context of strategic planning and management
To evaluate long term implications of the chosen environmental scanning technique
Rationale

There are different techniques available for environmental scanning. Environmental scanning is regarded to be the most important task prior to strategic planning and management. The chosen environmental scanning model for the purposes of this research , is based on the adherence to the main objectives related to environment evaluation. These objectives include the identification of the activities, the evaluation of the processes, the analysis of the information sharing process and investigation of information produced.

As a result, the environmental scanning model is based on implementation of PESTEL analysis, Porter’s Five Forces Analysis, Internal Analysis and Consumers (refer to the below demonstrated model).

This process is based on the utilization of both macro – and micro-environmental evaluations, namely PESTEL and SWOT analysis. PESTEL analysis is designed in order to identify the main external forces that may emerge and thus impact the organization (Johnson and Scholes, 2009). These forces, namely in the political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal domains, are uncontrollable (Johnson and Scholes, 2009). Therefore, these have to be identified in order to be able to respond to their emergence from a strategic perspective. SWOT is a micro-level analysis, which serves as a foundation for identification of the future opportunities and threats for the company (Ip and Koo, 2004). Opportunistic matrix identifies the main activities that may be performed in relation to the identified findings in terms of the possible response (Ip and Koo, 2004).

Porter’s Five Forces, is the key framework, which is utilized in order to identify the competitiveness of the organization within the industry. This is established with the help of the analysis of the influences of the main competitive forces, namely the power of buyers, the power of suppliers, threat of substitutes, threat of new entrants and the degree of rivalry (Porter, 1985). The findings demonstrate the industry’s forces that are perceived to be weak therefore may be taken advantage of in the strategic context.

Finally, the last stage of the environmental analysis aims to investigate the consumer behaviour and the key consumer trends. It is specifically focused on the identification of the patterns of consumer behaviour and consumer needs. It is maintained in order to apply the strategies that would affect the increase of customer satisfaction and further expansion of the target audience (Kotler and Armstrong, 2010).

The information sharing process is based on the implementation of the top down sharing approach. This implies that the information is transferred from the managerial levels to business and functional levels (Anderson, 2007). This enables quick ad facilitated information processing from the decision makers to the members of a functional level.

Criticism of a Chosen Technique

Despite the effectiveness and scope of the chosen technique, it is still subject to a certain degree of criticism. This implies that this framework does not incorporate the evaluation of the social impacts, which would be suitable, given the nature of the fundraising business (Becker, 2001). A PESTEL analysis mentions social impacts, whereas Opportunistic matrix involves evaluation of the societal forces (Correia and Wilson, 2001).

On the other hand, this environmental scanning framework allows us to evaluate the company from the organization’s, industry’s and consumer perspectives, which adds the depth to the possible findings. Other than that, this model aims to identify the key trends that may emerge. As the result, based on the identified findings, the organization may plan future strategies that would aid in response to the possible trends.

Even though, a PESTEL analysis tends to incorporate the risk analysis, much more advanced and in-depth risk evaluation might have been performed by IRGC (Model of Risk Governance) (Petts, 2008). However, given the scope of the framework and actual business, this analysis might have been perceived as too specialized.

Porter’s Five Forces, is a beneficial model for industry’s investigation. However, it has been developed in relation to the idea that contemporary market is perfect. This is not true, therefore this framework fails to address some issues that would be applicable to the imperfect market.

Methodology

It is recommended to perform the analysis on the basis of integration of the secondary research. The main sources will be acquired from the academic and professional books and journals, databases , reports and news reports. The secondary research is regarded to be limited, since the material for it is collected and analysed at east 1-2 years prior to publication. Therefore, the sources may be regarded as obsolete and outdated (Saunders et al., 2009).

Conclusion

This paper, designed in the format of a proposal, has been produced in order to identify and evaluate the best environmental scanning model in the context of strategic management. The paper demonstrates the most suitable environmental scanning technique for the charitable organization, namely NUSA. This organization specializes in fundraising and is based at Nottingham University. The environmental scanning model consists of four main stages, namely PESTEL analysis, Porter’s Five Forces, SWOT analysis and Consumer Evaluation. This analysis is regarded to be multidimensional thus adding depth to the evaluation. Despite it being a quite effective framework, it still has attracted some criticism. This implies that there is lack of evaluation from the social perspective, given the nature of the fundraising business. Furthermore, larger focus should have been applied to the possible risks examination. Other than that, this framework proves to be beneficial and effective from the strategic perspective.

References

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