Tag: Women

Abstract:

In this essay I plan to explore how the national patriotism engendered by the outbreak of the First and Second World Wars may have been more effective in achieving women’s suffrage than the comparatively impotent methods attempted prior by Millicent Fawcett and Emmeline Pankhurst. I will be studying the social perception of women before, during and after the wars, and comparing these views to gender treatments enacted in other countries. As a capricious issue spanning many decades and with no definitive date at which women’s enfranchisement was granted, I consider this to be an intriguing subject, and potentially a positive outcome that can be drawn from the bleak horrors of the war-time period. To ensure an objective analysis of this matter I have utilized a range of source material, including both detached, encyclopaedic annals of the topic, as well as more emotive diatribes from the women this subject personally affected.

Introduction:

“The war that has traditionally been defined as an apocalypse of masculinism seems to have led to an apotheosis of femaleness” (Gilbert 1983: p.424-425)

Little erodes the order of a status quo quite like war, a time where superficial social prejudices must be cast aside in order to unite in the name of preserving national identity. They can be regarded as “discontinuities”, moments or periods where “assumptions, rules or possibilities are so altered by events that the future, whatever it proves to be, cannot be the same as the past” (Butler and Bonnett 2007: p.18), and the two World Wars that stretched European and American resources and willpower to their most taut serve as archetypes of this rule. The assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian Nationalist Gavrilo Princip in 1914 led to events which would leave European nations at their most insecure. World War I consumed over 70 million military personnel, and the Second World War 100 million, separated by an uneasy 21 year truce under the precarious demands of the Treaty of Versailles. It is unsurprising, then, that with all manpower mobilized in battle, and the manufacture of military resources at their most crucial, that gender discriminations should be lifted, and for women to be provided the same opportunities as men. This did not just result in increased aggregates of steel and munitions – this epitomized the change women had been actively pursuing for almost 50 years.

Chapter 1 – The Suffragettes:

The struggle for women’s suffrage had been prevalent since the inauguration of the 1832 Reform Act which prohibited women from voting, but until the outbreak of the First World War campaigns had been largely ineffectual. This was likely due to the contrasting extremist approaches undertaken by the two leaders of the Women’s Social and Political Union during this period; Millicent Fawcett believed in the merits of a patient, non-violent protest which, though maintaining a composed logic to the women’s arguments, simply was not forceful enough to convince the men in Parliament to allow women into the electoral process, and Emmeline Pankhurst who took control in 1903 encouraged militant tactics, including arson, hunger strikes and violent demonstrations, significantly raising influential attention, but proportionately more controversy to the cause. Whilst it is fair to say that campaigns for women’s enfranchisement have been controversial since their inception, taking the form of Mary Wollstonecraft’s 1792 treatise ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’ , feminist propaganda which “earned her considerable criticism as she dared to acknowledge the existence of women’s sexual desires” (Shukla 2006: p.7), the actions under the Pankhursts were amongst the most combative, forcing the Government to pass the Cat and Mouse Act which permitted the force feeding and imprisonment of those women undertaking hunger strikes. The suffrage efforts were disbanded by Pankhurst at the outbreak of the First World War, deeming it more important to conserve a robust nationalistic stance supporting the British government, and it was actually in working in the war effort that women proved the redundancy of sexual prejudice that they had been campaigning against.

Chapter 2 – War-time efforts:

World War I saw a significant shortage of British manpower, and hence with the majority of able-bodied men embroiled in conflict, it fell to the women to take on stereotypically masculine roles. The ability of women to comfortably tackle physically demanding jobs in ship yards, steel mills, foundries and munitions plants, “exercising springs of resourcefulness and courage without showing off or indulging in macho behaviour” (Stikker 2002: p.209), revolutionized the perception of what women were capable of achieving. Under the iconic image of Rosie the Riveter, garbed in work overalls and polka-dot bandana, women were motivated towards and celebrated for “their ability to excel in a man’s world” (Butler and Bonnett 2007: p.12), not only in labour-intense positions of production, but also economic roles such as bank-tellers and cashiers, as well as the millions more who volunteered through the Red Cross and other such organizations. Meanwhile, the prior efforts of the Suffragettes had almost been forgotten amongst the newfound sense of national allegiance, which had the WSPU replacing their published The Suffragette journal with Britannia.

In recognition of the efforts exerted by women during this period, in 1918 an act was granted that allowed female householders and graduates to vote, and full suffrage to all women was endorsed in the United Kingdom 10 years later. With women’s enfranchisement already solidly grounded by 1939, the Second World War allowed an even greater permeation of women into men’s roles, with female patrols being absorbed into First World Metropolitan Police Officers, giving “women police the chance to show that they were capable of performing every type of duty” (Majumdar 2005: p.146). The World Wars, then, were vastly more effective in securing women’s rights in Britain than the preceding Suffragette demonstrations.

Chapter 3 – Women’s rights elsewhere:

In other nations, however, women’s independence was not so permanent. Russia, for instance, saw Lenin and then Stalin appointing women to high status roles concerning family matters, only to have the male-orientated hierarchy abolish these policies in 1929 once their practicality had been exhausted. Mussolini promised improvements for women in Italy, but limited within a Catholic, family-centred ideology, making it inarguably evident that “he considered women different to men”, and only permitting Fasci Femminili, the women’s wing of the Fascist party, authority over “women’s issues” (Stikker 2002: p.211). Germany, meanwhile, was too overwhelmed following the First World War by the severe retributions enforced by the Treaty of Versailles, and thus attributed little significance to the consideration of women’s issues. Although Hitler during World War II asserted the value of women in the maintenance of an Aryan race, all matters of women and motherhood within the Nazi party regime were ultimately under male leadership. Consequently it seems reasonable to believe that the supposed recognition of women by these States actually possessed greater imperial motives – women’s labour was utilized not to equalize employment opportunities but rather “to supply cheap labour for their… economies, to back their military build-up and to add their demographic ‘weight’ in Europe”, and their “exaltation of motherhood” was actually in response to a ‘population problem’ harboured by the nations, attempting to counter declining birth rates which had arisen from increased practice of contraception and family planning. Once feminine value had depleted, it was back to the “macho nature of totalitarian systems” (Stikker 2002: p.212).

Conclusion:

Although other nations may have disbanded positions of female power, Britain maintained gender equality as a direct response to women’s efforts during the war. Whilst it is true that as post-war manpower returned to swell employment figures many women lost their jobs to the pre-existing male masses, the critical part they played was not forgotten and served as a paradigm for the attitude towards women’s working roles. Although wartime women succeeded in achieving suffrage as well as equal employment opportunities, it was really the next generation of women who could appreciate this social change. Returning to domesticity, women never neglected the “economic hardship and social disruption during the Depression and World War II” and, wary of what the capricious future might hold, subsequently “encouraged their daughters to attend college and acquire employment skills” (Butler and Bonnett 2007: p.16). As a result, the current state of British gender isonomy can be traced back to the industrious efforts of women during the First and Second World Wars, periods when the nation could not afford to be discriminatory, and women were first allowed a true opportunity to demonstrate their capabilities.

Bibliography:

Bonnet, K. and Butler, M., 2007. Rosie’s Daughters: The “First Woman To” Generation tells its story. Iaso Books.

Gilbert, S.M., 1983. Soldier’s Heart: Literary Men, Literary Women, and the Great War. Signs: University of Chicago Press.

Majumdar, M., 2005. Encyclopaedia of Gender Equality through Women Empowerment. Sarup & Sons.

Shukla, B.A., 2006. Women on Women: A feminist study. Sarup & Sons.

Stikker, A., 2002. Closing the gap: Exploring the history of gender relations.

Abstract

This essay is a short compilation of research into the reasons for the enfranchisement and supposed ‘ regendering’ of women during the years 1914 and 1945, to determine how much it was due to the actions of women during the two world wars. Historical discussion of the impact of the wars, particularly the First World War, tends to fall into two camps; the first see enfranchisement as a reward for “services rendered” during the war years (Marwick, 1974). The opposing side sees it as a consequence of the political maneuverings of the time; the need for electoral reform with respect to soldiers, changes in the make up of parliament and women’s political groups (Bartley, 1998). This enfranchisement is often linked to a wider social change in the attitudes of women, to them starting to climb out of the domestic sphere, as well as a re-evaluation of how they perceive themselves within society, although the extent to which this occurs is, for me, a key question to raise here.

1. Introduction

War bears little regard for tradition or morality. Traditional gender boundaries find themselves in a state of suspended animation in these times; men are suddenly turned from fathers to killers, women from housewives to TNT-stained laborers, and it is the war’s effects on the latter gender, with particular reference to their political rights, that will be discussed here.

2. The Wars

2.1 World War I

It is not hard to see why the idea of enfranchisement as a ‘reward’ is propounded. In WWI women found themselves thrust into difficult employment like the munitionettesor army nurses. This meant that women were often doing jobs previously filled by men, blurring the enforced boundaries between them, and unraveling previous arguments for segregation. However, they were paid less than male counterparts (although any pay was particularly important for those who had lost their partner’s wage to the war). The women that were enfranchised in the 1918 Act were limited to those over 30, which left out a majority of younger women involved in war work. Surely, if the vote was a reward, it would have been handed to all of those deserving it rather than just a small sliver?

2.2 World War II

The use of bombing by German military in WWII meant that homes were ensnared in the conflict, it‘ trampled roughshod through the women’s sphere, the home’ (Calder, 1969). Female conscription was introduced in 1941, increasing the ‘ dual burden’ of having to run a home whilst employed, which won them applause in the press and political speeches. They were drafted in to a wider variety of military occupations, often working alongside men. After 1945 though many women left their employment, and government policy pushed a reversion to the family, a pattern also seen in 1918. This correlation implies very little real change. This prevailing family emphasis, particularly for married women, is epitomized in the Beveridge Report;

“ The attitude of the housewife to gainful employment outside the home is not and should not be the same as the single woman…. housewives and mothers have vital work to do in ensuring the adequate continuance of the British race” (quoted from Smith, 1990)

Here it is important to note the use of language, particularly ‘ vital work’; it is reinforcing child rearing as an occupation itself, as it was considered pre-war. This is perhaps an attempt to appeal to independently employed women, putting the home and the workplace on even ground.

3. Political Action

3.1 The Suffrage Movement

The enfranchisement of women was its own battle, one being fought for many years prior to WWI’s outbreak. The Suffrage Movement had an undeniable impact because of its success in merely raising the idea that women should be allowed to vote. The key impact of the war was the disruption and pacification of the WSPU Party. This allowed the more‘ civilized’ NUWSS to lead negotiations of suffrage, and reluctantly accept the first steps of suffrage on a limited basis, hoping it would open the possibility for future full suffrage; “we should greatly prefer an imperfect scheme that can pass” (Fawcett, quoted in Pugh, 1977). It should be noted though, that during the war years Suffrage activity disintegrates.

3.2 The 1918 Election

1918 was to be an election year, meaning the compilation of a new electoral register, to include soldiers, opening up the pre-war reform debate, only this time on the politician’s terms, given the decrease in suffragette pressure. It is the effects of this initial limited reform that contributes to the further 1928 Act. The simple fact those who vote in 1918 do so in a competent and organized manner, as well as political help women’s organizations offered during the election campaign legitimized the campaign for further suffrage to be re-considered by government. Over time, the membership and hierarchy of the major parties change, allowing some of the pro-suffrage politicians to take on more decisive roles, and continue to push the issue. (Close, 1977).

3.3 The Labour Party

Another important political factor for the plight of women was the growth of the Labour Party. Their 1923 manifesto claimed:

“Labour stands for equality between men and women: equal political and legal rights, equal right and privileges in parenthood, equal pay for equal work” (quoted from Time and Tide magazine, 1924)

Being a party rooted in socialist ideology they saw equal voting among the genders and classes as integral to the political system. Understandably, given the period, this was seen as a radical attitude, but their election successes meant that women had one less political party to convince, and an increasingly powerful ally. After their 1924 election win, not appearing as revolutionary as many feared they would further legitimized their ideological stand point, and allowed them to begin the debate of reform promised in their manifesto, thus restarting the gears of the full suffrage debate.

4. Conclusion

Whilst war can be seen as a catalyst, it is not the catalyst for reform; instead I think there are several integral factors that intertwine in the period to allow reform. Given the horrors of the wars, it is not hard to understand why people have used it almost as a scapegoat for reform; this way, something positive can be seen to have risen from the ashes of terror. The treatment employed women faced, such as lower pay, in indicative of an unequal attitude towards them, and the continued inequality during the intervening years and WWII does not indicate a wide shift in attitudes . Similarly, if the right to vote was a reward for work undertaken in WWI, surely it would have been extended to all women involved, rather than a section.

This mistakenly ignores the extensive efforts of organizations like the NUWSS and the Primrose League, whose intelligent campaigning undermines preconceptions about women’s emotional capabilities, and gives men political equals to consort with on their own ideological terms and see the similarities in opinion they both hold. The inclusion of the socialist Labour Party in the Commons ensures that reform has at least one consistent political ally. Pragmatically, the need for a new electoral register in 1916 allows the limited female vote to be added on without the need for its own Bill, which many find easier to stomach.

If there were a marked social change though, surely it would be shown in data collected from the period, such as the ‘Wartime Social Survey’. The picture presented of female attitudes to employment is of a “temporary response to an abnormal situation” (Smith, 1990). Interviews with women of the period reinforce this idea, showing how, despite higher legal equality, old perceptions are still rife, and leads one to pessimistically conclude that psychological changes weren’t as great;

“Of course when we get married I shan’t want to work; I shall want to stay at home and have some children. You can’t look on anything you do during the war as what you really mean to do; it’s just filling in time till you can live your own life again” (quoted in Smith, 1990).
Bibliography

Archdale, Helen “Editorial” Time and Tide, January 25, 1924

Bartley, Paula “Votes for Women, 1860-1928”,London, Hodder Murray,1998

Calkins, Susanna “Women in Service during World War I” Women and War: A Historical Encyclopedia from Antiquity to the Present. 2006, pp 237-241

Calkins, Susanna “Women on the Home Front” Women and War: A Historical Enccylopedia from Antiquity to Present. 2006, pp 246-248

Close, David “The Collapse of Resistance to Democracy: Conservatives, Adult Suffrage and Second Chamber Reform, 1911-1928”, The Historical Journal, Issue 20, pp 893-918, 1977

Donelly, Mark “Britainin the Second World War”,Oxford, Routledge, 1999

Doerr, Paul “Women in Service during WWII”. Woman and War: A Historical Encylopedia from Antiquity to the Present. 2006, pp 241-244

Goldstein, Joshua S. “War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vise Versa”,Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress, 2001

McMillan, James F. “The Coming of Women’s Suffrage, 1914-1945” [Online] http://www.keele.ac.uk/history/currentundergraduates/tltp/SUFFRAGE/COREDOCS/COREDOC3.HTM Date unknown

Martin, Sara “Women and WWI-Women in the Workforce: Temporary Men” [Online]

http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/womenww1_four.htm August 22, 2009

Marwick, Arthur “Women at War 1914-1918”,London, Croom Helm, 1977

Pugh, Martin D. “Politicians and the Women’s Vote, 1914-1918”, History, Vol. 59, Issue 197, pp 358-374, Oct 1974

Schwarz, Marc L. “Social Impact of World War I on Women”. Women and War: A Historical Encylopedia from Antiquity to the Present. 2006, pp 235-236

Smith, Harold L. “War and Social Change: British Society in the Second World War” Manchester,ManchesterUniversityPress, 1990

Abstract

At the beginning of the 20th century women in Britain were in an inferior position to men in virtually all walks of life.
The actions of individuals had a major impact on the development of equal opportunities for women.
The two world wars gave many women their first experience of ‘men’s work’.
The new ideas which developed during the sixties and seventies paved the way for our current conception of what equality of opportunity means.

At the beginning of the twentieth century the concept of equality of opportunity was virtually an alien notion in Britainand most of the rest of the world. Women, Gypsies, the elderly, Roman Catholics, those with disabilities and homosexuals, among others, all suffered from discrimination in different ways and to various degrees. The primary focus of this essay will be the drivers which have brought about the social, political and economic emancipation of women and the degree to which these goals have been achieved. These drivers can be identified as, firstly, those experiencing inequality, such as the Suffragettes and second stage feminists, with support, organising and challenging the status quo. Secondly, it is necessary to take into account the impact of the first and second world wars, the two most significant events of the century in terms of social, political and economic upheaval. The third driver has been cultural change from the 1960s onwards, with a focus on higher standards of living and more relaxed social and sexual attitudes. Lastly, it will be crucial to take into account the legal framework put in place by government to promote equality.

In 1900 British women could best be described as second class citizens, since they were politically unenfranchised and although the industrial revolution had brought ever increasing numbers of women into the workplace, they were not entitled to the same rights and privileges as working males.[1] In addition, regardless of work outside it, they were expected to care for their families and maintain the home. The prevailing Victorian attitude to women was well summed up by the poet and art historian John Ruskin (1864). ‘ Her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet ordering, arrangement and decision.’

The earliest change came in the area of political power. Female suffrage in Britaincan be seen as both a part of a wider movement in the Western world and a product of the campaigning National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies and the more militant Women’s Social and Political Union, founded by Emmaline Pankhurst in 1903.[2] The early achievement of the suffrage movement’s goals elsewhere in the west undoubtedly encouraged it’s supporters in Britain, and close links were established between Pankhurst’s group and the American movement.[3] Between 1905 and 1914 the WSPU embarked on an increasingly violent campaign of civil disobedience which culminated in one of its members, Emily Davison, being trampled to death by a horse owned by King George V at Epsom races. After compromises were agreed with Lloyd George’s coalition government, the majority of the women’s suffrage movement agreed to work towards the war effort. (Cawood & Mackinnon-Bell, p.71) Whether the Representation of the People Act of 1918 can be seen as a form of reward or a means of enfranchising enough women to replace those men killed in the war without giving them a majority, is debatable. (MacCalman, pp.36-47 & Marwick pp.112-120). However, limited suffrage was achieved in 1918, followed in 1928 by the vote for all women over the age of 21, thereby achieving equality with men.

Between 1914 and 1918 an estimated two million women were employed in industries such as dockyards, munitions and transport, previously the sole preserve of men. Wages were higher than in employment such as domestic service but still lower than that of their male counterparts. In addition, many women found employment inFranceandBelgiumas nurses, ambulance drivers and in auxiliary roles in the newly-formed WRNS and WAAC. However, the claim made by the NUWSS president, Millicent Fawcett, that ‘The war revolutionised the industrial position of women – it found them serfs and left them free’, seems exaggerated. More accurate is the assessment made in 1919 by Beatrice Webb, that women’s economic and sexual status had not changed. ( Webb, p.334) At the end of the conflict, the numbers of women employed in the ‘war industries’ declined rapidly as returning servicemen replaced them. In a situation in which unemployment and labour unrest were rife, the backlash against the continued employment of married women in particular and promotion of their domestic role, was perhaps understandable.

During the second world war, under pressure from a small group of the 15 female MPs, the cabinet introduced the 1941 National Service Act, which recruited single women aged 20 to 30 as auxiliaries in the Armed Forces, Civil Defence or war industry. From 1939 to 1943 there was an increase in the percentage of women in the total workforce from 25.8% to 32.5%. (Summerfield) However, equal pay was not achieved. In 1945, demobilisation of women was not as sudden as in 1918 and in some industries where post-war demand was high, such as shipbuilding, many women remained in work. In addition, a late 1940s drive by the Labour government to expand the female workforce, led to many more women being employed as nurses, teachers and clerical workers, as well as in factories.(Summerfield)

During the 1950s, women made strides towards pay equality in teaching (1952) and the civil service (1954), due largely to pressure from female MPs such as Edith Summerskill and non-party pressure groups. (Pugh, pp. 144–62). The focus of second wave feminism, a term used to describe a movement which began in the U.S.in the 1960s and had strong support in Britainand Europe, was equal opportunities in employment and education as well as legal, social and reproductive rights. Against the background of greater prosperity, new ideas, art and music, together with the social and sexual change which characterized the sixties, feminist thinkers and writers, such as Simone de Beauvoir, Germaine Greer, Marilyn French and Betty Frieden, created a level of debate in British society and media. The Equal Pay Act (1970) and subsequent Sex Discrimination Act (1975), the underpinnings of British equalities legislation, prohibited the unequal treatment of men and women in terms of pay and conditions of employment. The latter act also covers discrimination in training and education and the issue of harassment. [4]

As a result of a century of action by individuals, governments and the influence of monumental events such as two world wars and the cultural upheaval of the 1960s, Britainis undoubtedly a much more equal place at the end of the twentieth century than at the beginning. Margaret Thatcher remains the sole British female Prime Minister. There are currently 144 women out of 649 MPs at Westminsterand four out of twenty four cabinet members are women. (www.parliament.co.uk). In terms of business, in 2009 29% of the self-employed were women and 15% of the 4.8 million businesses in the UK were majority owned by women. (GROWE). In terms of elite sport, the success of team GB’s women in the London Olympic and Paralympic Games (82 out of 185 medals won) masks the lack of media coverage for women’s sport outside the Olympics and Grand Slam tennis events.[5] In terms of music and the arts, women such as J.K. Rowling, Tracy Emin and Adele are top earners in their respective fields. Thus it can be seen that, although women have made important advances towards equality in terms of political and economic power and their position in society, there are still significant battles to be won.

References

Harrison, J. (1991, Late VictorianBritain1875-1901 London

Cawood, I. & McKinnon-Bell, D. The First World War. Routledge (2001)

GROWE Greater Return on Women’sEnterprise. Women’s Enterprise Task Force (2009)

McCalman, J. Labour History No. 21 (Nov., 1971)

Maroula. J & Purvis, J. The women’s suffrage movement: new feminist perspectives.ManchesterUniversity Press, 1998).

Marwick, A. The DelugeLondon(1965)

Pugh, M.. “Domesticity and the Decline of Feminism 1930–1950.” In British Feminism in the Twentieth Century, ed. Harold L. Smith. (1990)

Report of the War Cabinet on Women in Industry, 1919

Ruskin, J. Lecture was given December 14, 1864, at the Town Hall,Manchester

Summerfield, P. Women Workers in the Second World War. Production and Patriarchy in Conflict (1984)

Women in Sport: The State of Play 2006; UK Sport,2006, p.24)

[1]Harrison (pp 157-183) states that in the 1901 census, 29.15 of women listed an occupation, generally badly paid. He lists the most common occupations for working class women as textile mill worker and domestic service whilst those from lower middle class backgrounds generally became teachers, nurses or clerks.

[2] Between 1893 and 1928, universal female suffrage was achieved inNew Zealand,Australia,Finland,Norway,Russia,Denmark,Canada,Germany,Holland,Sweden,U.S.A. and theUK.

[3] Pankhurst herself spoke at a rally in Conneticut in 1913.( Joannou and Purvis, p.157)

[4] The Act also created the Equal opportunities Commission, later the Equality and Human Rights Commission, to oversee its operation and bring prosecutions where appropriate.

[5] On average approximately 5% of all sports covers women’s sports.(Women in Sport: The State of Play 2006; UK Sport,2006, p.24)

Abstract

The 20th Century saw great advances in equality politics between men and women, particularly in the Western world. These reforms must have had political triggers, but what were the key drivers towards equal opportunitiesThis essay will argue that reform in Britain was the result of previous political action in the 19th Century, accompanied by the catalyst on extenuating circumstances during World War I and World War II. Precedents will be examined to determine what action preceded suffrage and prove that the war effort served to prove the capabilities and value of women in society.

The 20th Century was a significant turning point in the battle for equality of the sexes across the globe. Every country and nation has moved at it’s own pace in delivering equal opportunities to its citizens, but the 20th Century saw many breakthroughs, particularly in the Western world. This essay shall examine the key drivers and motives behind this equality reform with particular focus on British politics. I will argue that the key drivers towards reform were the building political pressure set in place in the 19th Century and the impact of the First and Second World War on society.

Although major reforms such as women’s suffrage took place in the early 1900’s these political amendments were not a brand new issue. The changes in the 20th Century were preceded by increasing political action throughout the latter half of the 19th Century. Women started to rebel against the double standard inherent in the “separate spheres” ideology which had been enforced for hundreds of years, excluding from public life and confining them to a more domestic existence.[1] However it is a fallacy that women remained completely absent from political life during these years, as middle class women often played supporting roles for their husbands.[2] Towards the end of the 19th Century women such as Josephine Butler, Lydia Becker and Elizabeth Wolstenholme paved the way for reform by breaking with traditional gender roles and becoming politically active in the public sphere.[3] Campaigns such as the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts 1860-1886 and for Married Women’s Property Rights saw great victories for women’s political activism which encouraged women to fight for their civil rights and influenced the suffrage movement.[4]

The women’s suffrage movement that took place in the first two decades of the 20th Century was arguably the most important step towards equality of the sexes. However the campaign launched by women such as Emmeline Pankhurst actually did very little to change the laws. Pankhurst held radical feminist views[5], describing herself in her autobiography as “militant” and her work as a “woman’s revolution.”[6] This militant behaviour did little to win over the favour of the government, but did succeed in keeping the issue of women’s equality in the public eye. It was the more endearing behaviour of women during the World Wars, especially the First World War 1914-1918, that proved the value of women and gained them additional rights and equality.

The First World War disrupted the campaigns of women greatly as supporting the troops took precedent. However new campaigns soon surfaced as women demanded the right to aid in the war effort. A large demonstration was held in Londonin 1915 as women protested for their “right-to-serve” in non-combat industries such as munitions factories.[7] Also in 1915 a certificate was issued to the ‘Women’s Land Army’, stating that any woman who laboured in agriculture during the war is “as truly serving her country as the man who is fighting in the trenches.”[8] Between 1915 and 1918 over one million women became employed in industries helping the war effort.[9] Some women were even brave enough to enter the battlefields as doctors, nurses and surgeons, risking their own lives for their country.[10] Women’s activities during the war not only proved their level of courage and loyalty through national service, but also showed that their abilities greatly outweighed that which had previously been attributed to them. An agriculture report from 1918 testified that women’s ‘shortcomings’ were “the result of want of training rather than that of zeal or capacity.”[11] In recognition of their toBritain women over 30 were given the right to vote in 1918. The law was extended to any woman over the age of 21 in 1928.

By the Second World War women had achieved suffrage and were now in a position to fight for more mundane but significant civil rights, which would not have previously been an option to them. In 1941 women fought against the poor quality of accommodation awarded to them when they were once again employed heavily in the war effort.[12] This demonstrates how far the rights of women had progressed to become equal with that of men: their value and contributions to the nation had become recognised, allowing them the power and right to fight for equality and better standards of living. Women also became skilled labourers due to the training they received in war-time occupation, allowing them to carve a niche for themselves in industry in times of peace and cementing an economic role for women.[13]

The pattern of revolution displayed by Britainthroughout the 20th Century is mirrored in other Western cultures. Canadian women won the vote in 1918 also, and women in the US won the right to vote in 1920. These achievements were also following years of preceding activism on behalf of women, during which time they campaigned for birth control rights[14] and took part in philanthropic movements. Yet it was the contribution of women to the war efforts that lead to the reform of civil rights at the end of the 1910s.

In conclusion the main drivers towards men and women’s equality in Britainin the 20th Century were the extenuating circumstances created by the First and Second World War. Women had begun to prove their worth in the public sphere during the 19th Century by implementing social reform, and they continued to display courage and ability when such qualities were desperately needed during the World Wars. Although other Western cultures were influenced by the war in similar circumstances there are still many countries worldwide in which women are treated as inferior to men.

Bibliography

Primary

Certificate issued to members of the Women’s Land Army, 1915 (PRO ref: MAF 42/8), sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf’, access date10/09/2012

Extract from the Report of the Board of Agriculture, October 1918, (PRO ref: MAF 59/2) sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf’, access date10/09/2012.

Extracts from the Report of the War Cabinet committee on Women In Industry, published in 1919, (PRO ref: MUN 5/88/342/18), ), sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf’, access date10/09/2012

Fawcett, Millicent G., What I Remember (London, 1925)

Hart, R A. (2009). ‘Did British women achieve long?term economic benefits from working in essential WWII industries?’. Stirling Economics Discussion Paper # 4006, sourced from ‘https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/797/1/SEDP-2009-05-Hart.pdf.’, access date10/09/12.

Pankhurst, Emmeline, My Own Story, (London, 1914)

The Illustrated London News, July 24, 1915.- 109, sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf, access date 10/09/2012

Secondary

Chalus, Elaine, ‘Elite Women, Social Politics, and the Political World of Late Eighteenth-Century England’, The Historical Journal, 43, 3 (2000)

Dawson, Sandra Trudgen, ‘Busy and Bored: The Politics of Work and Leisure for Women Workers in the Second World War British Government Hostels’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 21, No. 1 (2010).

Kennedy, David M., Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger, (Yale University, 1970).

Purvis, June, Pankhurst: A Biography, (Routledge, 2002)

Roberts, M. J. D., ‘Feminism and the State in Later Victorian England’, The Historical Journal, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Mar., 1995)

Smith, Angela K., Suffrage Discourse in Britain during the First World War, (Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2005).

Vickery, Amanda, ‘Historiographical Review: Golden Age to Separate SpheresA Review of the Categories and Chronology of English Women’s History’, The Historical Journal, 36, 2 (1993)

[1] Amanda Vickery, ‘Historiographical Review: Golden Age to Separate SpheresA Review of the Categories and Chronology of English Women’s History’, The Historical Journal, 36, 2 (1993), p. 401

[2] Elaine Chalus, ‘Elite Women, Social Politics, and the Political World of Late Eighteenth-Century England’, The Historical Journal, 43, 3 (2000), p. 670

[3] M. J. D. Roberts, ‘Feminism and the State in Later Victorian England’, The Historical Journal, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Mar., 1995), p. 89

[4] Millicent G. Fawcett, What I Remember (London, 1925), p. 118

[5] June Purvis, Pankhurst: A Biography, (Routledge, 2002), p. 7

[6] Emmeline Pankhurst, My Own Story, (London, 1914), introduction

[7] The Illustrated London News, July 24, 1915.- 109, sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf, access date 10/09/2012

[8] Certificate issued to members of the Women’s Land Army, 1915 (PRO ref: MAF 42/8), sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf’, access date10/09/2012

[9] Extracts from the Report of the War Cabinet committee on Women In Industry, published in 1919, (PRO ref: MUN 5/88/342/18), ), sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf’, access date10/09/2012

[10] Angela K. Smith, Suffrage Discourse in Britain during the First World War, (Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2005), p. 78

[11] Extract from the Report of the Board of Agriculture, October 1918, (PRO ref: MAF 59/2) sourced at ‘http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/britain1906to1918/pdf/complete_g4_cs4.pdf’, access date10/09/2012

[12] Sandra Trudgen Dawson, ‘Busy and Bored: The Politics of Work and Leisure for Women Workers in the Second World War British Government Hostels’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 21, No. 1 (2010), p. 33

[13] Hart, R A. (2009). ‘Did British women achieve long?term economic benefits from working in essential WWII industries?’. Stirling Economics Discussion Paper # 4006, sourced from ‘https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/797/1/SEDP-2009-05-Hart.pdf.’, access date10/09/12.

[14] David M. Kennedy, Birth Control in America: The Career of Margaret Sanger, (Yale University, 1970)

Abstract

Equal opportunity for men and women is a divisive global topic, and one that inspires political campaigning worldwide. In Western Nations, major steps were taken towards gender equality in the 20th century. However there are numerous milestones in both law and cultural perception that can be attributed as steps towards gender equality. By looking at the campaigning of the early 20th century and the socioeconomic change caused by the World Wars, the key drivers that allowed further social change can be identified.

Main Text

The movement towards equality between men and women in Western society progressed much faster in the 20th Century. This essay will look at driving forces such as the campaigning that led to political reform and helped change cultural perception of women’s roles, as well as the socioeconomic changes caused by the world wars that gave women an opportunity to take on roles previously denied to them, and how this led to further social and cultural reform.
Campaigns for women’s rights can be traced back to the 19th century, although it was not until the 20th century that legislation came into effect on a wide scale. These campaigns are best represented by suffragette movements in both Britain and the USA. In Britain in particular protesting reached heights that had not been seen for fifty years, national newspapers were awash with photographs of women chaining themselves to railings, and the death of Emily Davison only pushed the movement further. The suffrage movement was notably one of the first political movements to start breaking class and race barriers. In the US, women of lower classes and of African-American heritage gave support to the movement, and although the suffragettes were always dominated by white women of education, “[t]he shared exclusion of these different groups from the individual right of civic participation underscored their common womanhood.”(Evans)
Despite these breakthroughs in social inclusion, movements across the western world struggled to bring their governments to change policies – although Prime Minister of Britain, H.H. Asquith, did nearly sign legislation that would have allowed women who were over 30 and owned property, or were married to a property owner to vote. The Prime Minister pulled out on this due to concerns of what the boost in voters would mean for his political party’s chances on re-election. Up until this point suffragettes the world over had been fighting with very little success, apart from small steps such as The Employment of Women Act in 1906 (Checkland, p.22), which was brought around by international conference. Whilst this act protected women from being exploited in the workplace, it still restricted the amount they could work and kept the genders firmly unequal. The campaigning of women in the UK also helped push the government towards putting through the 1909 Trade Boards Act, a revolutionary step forward in maintaining the ethical rights of those in the workplace. The campaigning of the suffragettes was a major factor in bringing forth legislative reform, but was ultimately failing in its central cause to bring the vote to women.
The First World War was the key catalyst in bringing about far-reaching democratic and social reform for the Western nations. S.G Checkland said of its effect on the UK: “The war of 1914-18 cut across the policy debate of late Victorian and Edwardian times, overwhelming it with an experience of traumatic depth.” (Checkland, p.13) Key to this was a number of factors. Politicians priorities changed, and the party-squabbles that had been such a large part of many a government’s tendency to only look at their own higher class concerns were put aside for the duration of the conflict. Class barriers became thinner as men fought together on the front, and back home citizens were united in a common cause. The economic cost of the war was far reaching and caused further political change during for years after. Many suffragettes followed Millicent Fawcett in her “ceasefire” for the duration of the war, stopping their campaigning in a time of great national need. This choice helped stall the “hysteria” argument of suffrage opposition, and gave Fawcett and others like her enough influence to help lobby through what would become the 1918 Representation of the People Act. (Howarth)
More importantly however, the war caused a shortage of men in the workplace. Women found themselves given the opportunity to take on jobs previously denied to them – many in munitions factories helping the war effort. This proved to be one of the key drivers in bringing about gender equality, as once the barrier that faced women entering the workplace had fallen, the status quo could never truly be restored. In the years after the war, social reform spread through western countries, and finally women were given the right to vote in the US in 1914 and in 1918 in the UK. This step forward in equality was in itself a key driver for the rest of the 20th century: The eventual success of the suffrage movement remains an inspiration to feminist movements today, proving that democratic change towards gender equality is attainable.
Despite these steps forward, most women did not retain their jobs once the war ended. Whilst there was a small step forward for equality in the workplace, and some women did find more openings into jobs previously blocked from them. However in 1920 in the US only 21% of gainfully employed people were women. (United States Department of Labor) In World War Two, women again entered the workplace to replace the men who had gone to fight. At the end of that conflict, change was enough that women were no longer just housewives, there were firmly placed in the workplace as well. (Skoog, p.10).
The arrival of the contraceptive pill and laws allowing abortion came in the decades that followed, as did feminist movements that demanded equal pay and fought for further equality as the suffragettes once did. However, the key drivers can be attributed to those original protesters and their success in the early 20th century, as well as the society-reforming effects of the world wars on western nations. There is still debate on whether genders are truly equal, and on a global scale there most definitely inequality of opportunity. The actions and results of the movements in the 20th century do however prove there is hope for equality.

Bibliography

Checkland S.G. 1989. British public policy, 1776–1939. The Industrial Economies: The Development of Economic and Social Policies. Volume 8 (6), pp.13-22. Available at: Cambridge Histories Online [Accessed 19 September 2012]

Evans, S. Women in American Politics in the Twentieth Century. Available: http://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/womens-history/essays/women-american-politics-twentieth-century. Last accessed 19th Sept 2012.

Howarth, 2004. J. ‘Fawcett, Dame Millicent Garrett (1847–1929)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, online edn, Available at: [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33096] Last accessed 20 September 2012.

Skoog, K. (2009) ‘Focus on the housewife: The BBC and the post-war woman, 1945-1955’. Networking knowledge: Journal of the MeCCSA Postgraduate network. Volume 2 (1) p.10, Available at: [http://ojs.meccsa.org.uk/index.php/netknow/article/view/35/35]Last accessed 19th Sept 2012.

United States Department of Labor, Our History, Available at: [http://www.dol.gov/wb/info_about_wb/interwb.htm] Last accessed 19th Sept 2012.

Introduction

Women’s headscarf becomes a prominent topic of discussion by many people throughout the world especially after the coming of the Islamic revival in many of the Muslim countries. After Islamic resurgence, many Muslim women have to or voluntarily put on the headscarf to cover their head. The issue of the headscarf has been debated especially after the raise of the feminist movement which believe that their rights have been discriminated by man’s interpretation of religious text and laws.

In 2003, Jacques Chirac, the French President gets an open letter saying that “the Islamic veil sends us all-Muslim and non- Muslim-back to a discrimination against women that is intolerable.” They really think that headscarf is a sign of suffering, make the life of women difficult and slow down the personal growth and social development of women. (Kavakci, 2004). However, many people nowadays including the non-Muslims see the headscarf as a symbol of liberation and modernization. In Malaysia for example, we can see many people voluntarily wear the headscarf with different fashion and style. Headscarf is not anymore a symbol of backwardness but it is something that many women are proud to wear.

There are many different interpretations and understanding on the Muslim headscarf. Thus, from all these different interpretations and meanings, we can see the outcome on how headscarf has been applied in the life of the Muslim women. If we go back to the traditional ulama’ (scholars) interpretations, we can see whether headscarf is obligatory or not for the Muslim women to wear.

The meanings and interpretations of the headscarf

In Qur’an, the headscarf is called as ‘?ijab’, ‘khimar’ or jilbab and there are many different interpretations of these words because of the different understanding and interpretations of the word itself. The simple meaning of ?ijab, khimar or jilbab in the Qur’an is the headscarf, veil or something that we use to cover our hair. Hence, before we go further to see whether headscarf is obligatory for Muslim women or not, we need to define it first.

The words used in the Qur’an for the headscarf is usually either khimar or jilbab. In Tafsir Ibn Kathir, according to Al-Jawhari, “jilbab is the outer wrapper”. (Abdul-Rahman, 2008, p. 67) In the time of the Prophet, women should draw their jilbab as a sign of modesty and to make them distinct from the slaves and the Jahiliyyah women. Ali bin Abi Talhah reported that Ibn Abbas said that the Muslim women must draw their jilbab from their head over their bodies including their faces and leaving the eyes open. The reason is to make others know that they believing women, they are free and not servants. (Abdul-Rahman, 2008) Hence, do we need to also cover our faceMany scholars say that it is only for the believing women in time of the Prophet as a sign of identification to make others know that they are free women and not slaves. All the Sunni scholars, Maliki, Syafi’e, Hanbali and Hanafi argue that face and hands should be uncovered because they are important in buying and selling, giving and taking. They also have agreed that wearing jilbab or the headscarf is an obligation to the Muslim women.

Islam has a system of ?ijab. What is ?ijab‘?ijab’ technically means covering. Beall define it as “any type of head-covering of Muslim women worn for religious reasons” (Beall, 2008, p. 339). According to Othman, ?ijab means ‘a loose and long type of dress that must be adopted by Muslim women’. (Othman, 2006, p. 340). Some of the scholars define ?ijab as “something that cover everything except face, feet and hands in public”. (Groen, 2010).However, according to Muslim scholars in Islamic jurisprudence, ?ijab is actually more than to cover the hair. For instance in surah Allah says: “when you ask (his wives) for anything from them, ask them from behind the screen (?ijab). It is purer to your hearts and to their hearts”. ?ijab is something that you use to control the interaction between men and women especially when they are not related to.

According to Naik, ?ijab is frequently been discussed in the context of women but actually, ?ijab in Quran was addressed firstly to men and then, to the women. (Naik, 2009) Allah says in the Holy Quran: “Tell the believing men to reduce some of their vision (?ijab) and guard their private parts. That is purer for them. Indeed, Allah is Acquainted with what they do”. {An-Nur: 30} From this ayah, some scholars define ?ijab as “a concept relating to the interaction of men and women, not just an item of clothing to cover the head or the body”. (Yaqoob, 2004, p. 4). Man should lower their gazes and if they look at women with bad thought, they should lower their gazes.

Then the next ayah Allah asks women to wear khimar: {And say to the faithful women to lower their gazes, and to guard their private parts, and not to display their beauty except what is apparent of it, and to extend their headcoverings (khimar) to cover their bosoms…. And let them not stamp their feet to make known what they conceal of their adornment. And turn to Allah in repentance, all of you, O believers, that you might succeed.} (Surah An-Nur : 31)

In this ayah Allah gives five commandments for us as Muslim women to follow which include wearing the headscarf: to lower their gazes, to guard their private parts, not to display their beauty except what is apparent of it, to extend their headcoverings to cover their bosoms, not to display their beauty except to their husbands or their fathers, not to strike their feet (on the ground) so as to make known what they hide”.

According to Naik, women should cover their whole body except their face and hands. The khimar or the headscarf also should cover their breasts. However, this ayah not only talks about clothing, but it also talks about the moral conducts and attitude of both man and woman. Furthermore according to him, “?ijab of the clothes should be accompanied by ?ijab of the eyes, ?ijab of the heart, ?ijab of thought and ?ijab of intention. It also includes the way a person walks, the way a person talks and the way he behaves”. (Naik, 2009, p. 6). Therefore, ?ijab is not merely a piece of cloth, but it is more to a concept of modesty that must be applied by both man and woman.

We can see many ayah in the Quran talk about covering ‘aurah for example: O Prophet! Say to your wives and your daughters and the women of the faithful to draw their outer garments (jilbab) close around themselves; that is better that they will be recognized and modest (not annoyed). And God is ever Forgiving, Gentle. (Surah Al-Ahzab : 59)

There are disputations on this ayah because some women believe that this ayah only refers to the Prophet’s wives and the Arabs thus, it does not includes other women. But majority of the scholars agreed that this ayah is also refers to all Muslim women because Islam is universal, and this ‘modesty’ is also universal, it is not only referring to the Arabs and the Prophet’s wives. In addition, modesty not only needs to be implemented by women but it also includes men. The reason is to prevent them from harm and they can easily be recognized as a modest woman. (Naik, 2009)

Islam does not single out women in terms of dressing. It does asking both men and women to dress modestly. The difference is that Quran does not talk about men’s adornments as it does to women. (Barlas, 2002). Asma’ Barlas argues that ‘adornments’ in the ayah does not include hair and face. It is only refers to the bosom and private parts. However, majority of scholars have agreed that the adornment is referring to the whole body, including hair except “what is apparent of it” which refers to the face and hands because there is a hadith of the Prophet saying that to Asma’, Saidina Abu Bakr’s daughter when he sees Asma’ wear thin clothes: “O Asma’! When a girl reaches the menstrual time, it is not proper for her to expose her body except this and this”. He shows at his face and palm. (Abu Daud). (Chaudhry, 1991). According to Al-Qardhawi, the adornment in this ayah is refers to any natural or man-made beautification that is worn by woman to beautify herself such as make-up and tight dress.

Argumentations of women on headscarf

Some of the Muslim women believe that headscarf used to be a man’s way to control women and it also seen as the way women express themselves. Some of them believe that Islam asks them to wear headscarf but they still convinced by the arguments against headscarf and other Islamic practices of their upbringing especially those who coming from the cities. In villages, women are still practicing and interested in wearing headscarf because for some countries, headscarf is only for the villagers or the lower status women, not for the rich women especially those who live in the cities and towns. People in the cities, as being interviewed by Bullock, are really desired to wear headscarf but they afraid that people will question them and the condition will become worst when they cannot even find any job because of the headscarf. They also claim that the reactions of others towards them like they are coming from the outer space and they see headscarf as a block in interactions with people. (Bullock, 2002) However according to Katherine Bullock, in the conclusion of the interview on headscarf, she says that “Religious reasons were a strong motivating factor for the decision to cover, or for the belief that a Muslim woman should be covering”. (Bullock, 2002, p. 50)

Barlas does not agree with the argument that the Qur’an counsels modesty in two ways which is first, by sex segregation and second by veiling women in order to protect them and at the same time to protect the man’s sexual virtue. She argues that, if men and women are segregated, the ayah to cast down gaze would be unnecessary because how they can see each other if they are segregateHence for her, she believes that men and women can work together, but of course with limitation. When they meet each other, they need to lower their gazes and control themselves from fornication or act that will lead them to it and lower the gazes is far more important than wearing the veil. Therefore, this ayah totally contradicts with the rules of sex segregation established by the Muslim conservatives. She also argues that this ayah shows that the real veil is the eyes, not the headscarf. She and many other scholars believe that gaze is the ‘messenger of fornication’. Barlas believes that khimar (headscarf) is only to cover the bosom, not the hair and face. Norani Othman also has the same argument with Barlas that the headscarf is only to cover the breasts and not the hair. She further argue that, “the discriminate of Muslim women through the mechanism of ?ijab, gender segregation and social control is sustained and reinforced in contemporary society because quite often it coincides or intersects with the postcolonial politics of cultural identity”(Othman, 2006, p. 343)

Headscarf is only a culture?

Religion cannot be separated from the culture. We can see the way women wear their headscarf in one country is different with the way women in other country wear it. In the Middle East such as Egypt, their culture of wearing hijab is to cover everything except the eyes and that is their way to wear it and people with no hijab will be questioned. They have no choice except to wear it like that. In Malaysia, people have choice and they can choose whether they want to wear it or not. They can wear everything that they want and nobody cares. Hence in Malaysia, the headscarf is not a big issue because they have the freedom to choose and this is very different with other culture in other Muslim countries. In my opinion, Islam is flexible. In Islamic law and jurisprudence, the law must be made according to the context and situation of the people and the country. In the case of headscarf, Muslims need to understand that the reason of wearing the veil is to protect women from harm. Hence, if we go to the United States or other non-Muslim countries where majority of the people are not Muslims, we are not encouraged to wear the veil (niqab) if it makes us insecure.

Wearing headscarf is actually one of the ways Islam protects women. Islam allows women to go to work, seek knowledge, talk with man, engage in business but Islam asks women to cover their body and hair because of the security of the women and prevent the foolish to harass them. Hair is women’s pride and in Islam, women are protected and looked after. Therefore, we should not go against the command of God because He knows better what the best thing for us. (Abdul Rahman, 2003).

Conclusion

As a conclusion, I believe that headscarf is the dress etiquette which value women from the wild gazes of men because it is a protection, security of the dignity of women. However, the issue of headscarf become very controversial because of the misunderstanding of others especially the West (non-Muslims) who do not give the chance to the other people to speak for themselves. They just make an assumption and later, they confused people about it. They claim that headscarf is just a culture and women’s liberation is impossible except after they remove their headscarf. Many of the research show us that headscarf has been accepted by majority of the women as an obligation or a religious duty, and it is neither a tradition nor a social or political significance nor an oppression of man.

In one of the research on the hijab by Ameli and Merali, they report that 81% of the Muslims in the Britain said that hijab is the most important values that they must

– Before 9/11, 60.8% of women who wore some form of Hijab experienced being

talked down to or treated as if stupid. This figure rose to 68.5% after 9/11.

– The majority in all levels of education, except PhD assigned Hijab as one of the most

important religious values and for those with a PhD, the majority still believed it to be

a very important religious value

According to Othman, Muslim women in Malaysia are now debating on the women’s ‘authentic’ Islamic identity which they argue always been related with the act of covering as the sign of faith and good Muslim. This is actually the effect of the Islamic resurgence which makes a ruling to force women to cover their head and thus, it takes away the right of women to choose for themselves. (Othman, 2006). However, some Muslim women say that they are really grateful for the coming of Islamic resurgence because from that resurgence they know more about Islam and get the awareness on what they should do and not to do.

If we think with our rational mind, what harm did the headscarf bringMany of women with headscarf feel they are beautiful, more respected with more pride and have full dignity with headscarf covering their head. I do not see that headscarf is the oppression and pressure from man. However, I can see that uncovering the hair and body as the pressure from men because they like to see it. Obviously I am not going to please men by showing my hair and body to them and I am always feeling protected from men’s impolite stares. I just want to ask the women who really oppose the obligation to wear headscarf, when they pray, why they wear headscarfWhy they cover their hairWe can see women at funerals, many of the women will cover their hair. We can see here a very strong relationship between religion and culture. It is a sign that modesty (by wearing headscarf) is a norm especially for the Muslim women. Some people may say that they want to respect the funeral event and some of them may say that at that time they feel they should wear it to respect the religion.

Headscarf is a sign of obedience to Allah and the manifestation of faith. It is also a Muslim identity. We do not have to say that we are Muslims, people will just know it by our appearance. Headscarf is also a constant reminder to the Muslim women that they are Muslims and therefore, they should conduct themselves properly as a Muslim. One of the Japanese Muslims says that before she reverted to Islam, she always feel embarrass when men stare at her bosom and hip as if they are seeing something that they are not supposed to see. That is why Islam asks us to dress modestly, wear ?ijab and not being naked in the public. This is to protect women from any disturbance and harm. (Khaula Nakata, Ruth Anderson, 1995)

Last but not least, I strongly believe that wearing the headscarf is obligatory for all Muslim women but, this is the matter of choice. Many of the Muslim women do not wear the headscarf because of many different reasons that has been stated above. Wearing the headscarf for me is the sign of obedience to Allah and one of the ways for us to become modest. It depends on each person’s understanding and interpretations of the headscarf. Everybody has their own reasons to wear or not to wear it.

Bibliography

Abdul Rahman, M. S. (2003). Islam: Questions and Answers (Psychological and Social Problems). United Kingdom: MSA Publication Limited.

Abdul-Rahman, M. S. (2008). The Meaning and Explanation of the Glorious Qur’an. London: MSA Publication Limited.

Barlas, A. (2002). Believing Women in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur’an. University of Texas Press.

Beall, A. (2008). Hijab, Meaning, Identity, Otherization and Politics: British Muslim Women. Journal of International Women Studies , 340.

Bullock, K. (2002). Rethinking Muslim Women and The Veil. Herndon,USA: The International of Islamic Thought.

Chaudhry, M. S. (1991). Women’s rights in Islam. India: Adam Publishers.

Groen, J. (2010). Women’s warriors for Allah. United States: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Kavakci, M. (2004). Headscarf Heresy. Foreign Policy , 142.

Khaula Nakata, Ruth Anderson. (1995). Hijab(Veil): The view from the Inside. Saudi Arabia: World Assembly of Muslim Youth.

Naik, Z. (2009). Answer to non-Muslims’ common questions about Islam. Pakistan: Islamic Research Foundation.

Othman, N. (2006). Muslim women and the challenge of Islamic fundamentalism/extremism: An overview of Southeast Asian Muslim women’s struggle for human rights and gender equality. Women’s Studies International Forum , 343.

Othman, N. (2006). Othman, N. (2006). Muslim Women and the Challenge of Islamic Fundamentalism/ Extremism: An Overview of Southeast Asian Muslim Women’s Struggle for Human Rights and Gender Equality. Women’s Studies Internationla Forum 29 , 339-353.

Introduction

‘It is widely felt that female characters in film have been restricted to the easy categories that classical narratives and familiar genres demand of them (the typical complaint is that women in films are either ‘virgins, mothers or whores’).’ (Cardwell)In this essay I will be discussing how useful psychoanalysis is in understanding cinematic representation of women. I will be focusing on key influential psychoanalysts from the beginning through to the modern representations of psychoanalysis, beginning with the founder Sigmund Freud but also mentioning more modern theories, such as those of Melanie Klien, Heinz Kohut and Jacques Lacan.

Psychoanalysis is a theory founded by Sigmund Freud (born 1856) in the 1890’s. It is possible to define psychoanalysis in three aspects. The first of these aspects being a method of mind investigation: concentrating on the investigation of the unconscious mind. The second being a method of therapy (psychotherapeutic) that derived from the type of investigation mentioned above. The final aspect can be defined as a group of theories based on the knowledge and data that is provided by the above investigation and treatment of the mind. The themes of psychoanalysis are power, ambition, insecurity, attachment, isolation and longing. (http://psychoanalysiscleveland.org/about-us/about-psychoanalysis-and-psychotherapy/) It is a tool for understanding how the human mind works and it contributes insight into whatever the mind produces. Therefore it has a profound influence on many aspects of twenty first century culture, including cinema. Many of Freud’s key terms have become commonplace in modern society such as repression, libido, superego and fetishism. Freud believed in the Oedipus complex and that the individual who is unable to come to terms with their gender (activity for boys, passivity for girls) may become an hysteric and may display symptoms such as paralysis or amnesia. Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960) and Marnie (1964) show examples of the Oedipus complex. Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) was a French psychoanalyst that made huge contributions to the world of psychoanalysis and ‘extend psychoanalytical thought in several directions’ (Holcombe, 2007) . Lacan’s ideas have impacted greatly on feminist theory and also film theory. ‘Some aspects of Lacan have been useful in film theory because he combined Freudian psychoanalysis with semiology, thus offering a means for linking semiotic and psychoanalytic readings of films’ (Kaplan 1983:19). Karen Horney (1885–1952) was one of the first generation of women to be admitted to the study of medicine, she then undertook training in analysis and gained her M.D degree. Horney’s theories questioned many of Freud’s traditional views, especially the male-based view of the psychology of women and argued that the source of ‘female neurosis’ was due to male dominated culture. Her writings had a major impact on the beginnings of Feminist theory in the 1970’s.

As the position of women in society has progressed through time it is clear that the representation of women in film has developed alongside it. The male dominated society of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century is reflected in cinema and film. Women were portrayed in film often in a sexist way, in order to satisfy the male gaze. Out Of The Past (1947) is a classic example of Film-Noir written by Daniel Mainwaring and directed by Jacques Tourneur, which portrays two women from opposite ends of the spectrum. The character of Kathie is represented as the ultimate femme fatale as she attempts to manipulate men as opposed to the men manipulating and controlling the women. Women of this nature during this period were viewed (largely by men) as dangerous and irrational. This is because the femme fatale woman was rebelling against the conventions of traditional society. ‘As soon as the relation between vision and knowledge becomes unstable or deceptive, the potential for a disruption of a given sexual logic appears. Perhaps the disruptiveness can define, for feminist theory, the deadliness of femme fatale.’ (Doane, 1991: 14) However Ann, a character of the same film, is perceived as the traditional woman of the 1940’s who remains loyal to her man despite his disrespect and ill treatment towards her. A more recent example of a dangerous femme fatale character in film is Mia Wallace (Uma Thurman) in the film Pulp Fiction (1994) directed by Quentin Tarantino, who is regarded as untrustworthy by her husband, Marsellus. ‘Marsellus cannot successfully or completely hold on to his beautiful Caucasian wife Mia (Uma Thurman), and unwisely has his lieutenants attending to her while he is out of town.’ (Hauke, 2001:58) Women were often portrayed as victims in past films however; it is not unusual for women to be portrayed as victims (in some cases) to this day. East is East (1999) directed by Damien O’Donnell serves as a prime example of women in film being portrayed as victims, in this case a victim in her own home. Ella Khan (Linda Bassett) is subject to violence from her husband, yet she remains loyal to his wishes. Films portray the character of a woman in similar situations as fearful of the males. The progress regarding the position of women in society, their rights and the move towards gender equality has led to a more proportioned representation of women in modern cinema. However, many female characters are still portrayed as inferior to males and still perhaps as a ‘stereotypical’ woman. Laura Mulvey (Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema) argues that in the majority of cinema and film the Male Gaze (the perspective of a heterosexual man) outweighs that of the Female Gaze.

‘In a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female. The deter-mining male gaze projects its phantasy on to the female figure, which is styled accordingly. In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness. Women displayed as sexual object is the leit-motif of erotic spectacle: from pin-ups to strip-tease, from Zeigfeld to Busby Berkeley, she holds the look, plays to and signifies male desire.’ (Mulvey)

Considering the above argument it is suggested that psychoanalysis is useful in understanding the general cinematic portrayal of women, being that they are in fact ineffectively represented due to the power of the male gaze on both sides of the camera.

Since the late nineteenth century women have played a key role in influencing the developments in the film industry. Females’ appearing in films was essential for the progress of the industry despite them being recognized more for their appearance than for their ability. The roles that women played were most likely to be that of the stereotypical gender roles of the time. Female actresses proved to be extremely popular with audiences and thus were an essential to the rise of and popularity of the film industry. As women had an increased role in society and they were able to earn their own income they began to take part in leisure activities associating outside the household with men. One of these leisure activities being the Cinema, and in effect it was in fact the women that were funding the industry. Middle class women began to re-shape the cinema experience for those of the lower classes and film producers focused and relied upon these women in order to promote the industry and help it thrive. Melodrama is something concerned primarily with the domestic and feminine themes, with melodramatic films often including a central female character. Melodrama is a genre that relied upon the interest of female audiences and the ability of female actors for its success. “So why is it that women are drawn to melodramaWhy do we find our objectification and surrender pleasurableThis is precisely an issue that psychoanalysis can help explain: for such pleasure is not surprising if we consider the shape of the girl’s Oedipal crisis. Following Lacan for a moment, we see that the girl is forced to turn away from the illusory unity with the mother in the prelinguistic realm and has to enter the symbolic world which involves subject and object. Assigned the place of object (lack), she is the recipient of male desire, passively appearing rather than acting.” (Kaplan, 1983:26).

As the theories of psychoanalysis have developed from Freud to Lacan and many more it has become apparent as to how cinema and psychoanalysis go hand in hand in understanding the complicated workings of the human mind. “Cinema allows the inner world to be represented through moving pictures – and some of our most vivid modes of “thinking” or “dreaming” occur in pictorial form” (Brearley, 2009). Psychoanalysts and Film Theorists, through their writings and investigations, have helped unveil the links between psychoanalysis and understanding the minds of not only real life characters but also those in film. Ideas derived from psychoanalysis help not only audiences but also many within the film industry understand the behavior of characters on screen and the reasons behind this behavior. Therefore it becomes clear that psychoanalysis has assisted the growth and understanding of the film industry, and thus theoretically it aids film theorists and others in understanding the cinematic representation of women. This is because the women presented to an audience on screen are fictional characters (although sometimes based or modeled on real people) and are being presented in a way that the person/people behind the lens of the camera interpret women. Although the cinematic representation of women does not always reflect todays society, psychoanalysis is useful in film in helping us understand the film industry’s interpretation: “Psychoanalytic ideas help make sense of characters’ behavior, though unlike in real life we don’t have the characters responding to help deepen, modify or falsify our interpretations. Instead, we try to make objective appraisals of what the director presents to us.” (Brearley, 2009).

The Feminist film theory derived from the 1970’s feminist movement where women demanded change in gender equality and representation. Laura Mulvey (1914) is a Feminist film theorist whose work and ideas helped move the orientation of film theory towards a psychoanalytic structure heavily influenced by Freud and Lacan. Mulvey’s intention was to combine film theory, psychoanalysis and feminism. Mulvey argues that most films present women in a way that is intended for male viewers, focusing on the sexualized appearance of women. Mulvey viewed Hollywood Cinema as something that used women as ‘erotic objects’. Voyeurism in film is something that links highly with psychoanalytical theories, and has become a popular topic of debate since the 1970’s around the time of the feminist movement. Its straightforward meaning is the pleasurable observation of someone else’s intimate acts, usually (not always) sexual. The fact that the person/persons are unaware they are being observed is key to the thrill, and thus huge links can be made between audience and film/cinema. “Psychoanalysis has been activated in feminist film theory primarily in order to dissect and analyze the spectator’s physical investment in the film. But to accomplish this, theory had to posit a vast synchrony of the cinema – the cinema happens all at once (as, precisely, an apparatus) and its image of woman is always subservient to voyeuristic and fetishistic impulses.” (Kaplan, 1990:48). Taking into account the links between psychoanalysis and voyeurism its demonstrated that it assists us in understanding the cinematic representation of women and how they are presented to the viewers of film in order to satisfy certain desires, largely sexual.

‘Gaze’ is a common psychoanalytical term brought into awareness by Jacques Lacan and can offer a great deal of insight into the cinematic world, and particularly the cinematic representation of women. In short, ‘the gaze’ means the fear one feels after becoming aware that he/she is a visible object. In film there are numerous types of ‘gaze’, the view of the audience is called the spectators gaze. The objects (characters, setting etc.) the spectators are viewing has derived from the camera’s gaze, usually that of the film director. The gaze is a crucial aspect of psychoanalysis that contributes to understanding the cinematic representation of women as it has huge links with feminist film theory and particularly Laura Mulvey. As mentioned previously, Mulvey suggests that the male gaze often outweighs that of the female in film. Mulvey also argues that the ‘gaze’ belongs to a single gender.

Through assessing many aspects of psychoanalysis and film it seems that psychoanalysis is helpful in understanding the cinematic world as a whole. I consider psychoanalysis to be of great help in understanding the cinematic representation of women. That being how cinema, despite developments in recent years both socially and industry wise, ineffectively represents women as they are today and instead falls into stereotypical ideas and purely satisfies the male gaze. However, it is also arguable that film is often fictional and thus one may believe that in cinema and film a true reflection of society is not necessary. Psychoanalysis has assisted not only film theorists in understanding the industry but has also, through Melodrama and such, helped the industry thrive. It is possible to view psychoanalysis, as a gateway into the minds of those on both sides of the lens, but only vaguely as those in film are unable to widen or provide depth into to the interpretations of those spectating. “Throughout the 1970s, Screen was the most important testing ground for the methodologies that have shaped contemporary film theory: semiotics, Marxism, and psychoanalysis. Central to each is an issue of representation. According to the semioticians, film was to be understood as a systematic network of binary oppositions, organized metaphorically, if not literally, like language. (Carson, 1994:50).

Bibliography – Joe Clifford

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Brearley, Michael. (2009) ‘So, tell me about your director’ – cinema and psychoanalysis. In: The Guardian [online] http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/oct/29/european-psychoanalytic-film-festival-psychoanalysis (Accessed on: 04/04/11)

Cardwell, Sarah. Female Protagonist. In: screenonline.org.uk [Online] http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/824016/(Accessed On: 12/04/11)

Carson, Diane. (1994) Multiple voices in feminist film criticism. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.

Doane, Mary Anne. (1991) Femmes Fatales: feminism, Film Theory, Psychoanalysis. New York: Routledge.

Hauke, Christopher (2001) Jung And Film. East Sussex: Brunner-Routledge.

Holcombe, C. John (2007) Jacques Lacan. In: textetc.com [Online] http://www.textetc.com/theory/lacan.html (Accessed on: 28/03/11)

Kaplan, E. Anne (1983) Women & Film Both Sides Of The Camera. Great Britain: Methuen & Co.

Kaplan, E. Anne (1990) Psychoanalysis & Cinema. New York: Routledge.

Mulvey,Laura. (1975) Visual pleasure and narrative cinema. In: Screen [online] https://hypercontent.hull.ac.uk/short_loan_collection/Film_Studies/90102/Mulvey_90102_2620.pdf (Accessed on: 28/03/11)

Introduction

Osteoporosis is a progressive disease where bone catabolism increases faster than its formation decreasing the density of bones which results in a great bone weakness. Osteoporosis is associated with a great level of calcium loss making the bones very porous and fragile. Osteoporosis is a disease that affects 1 in 3 women and 1 in 12 men and can cause death in a severely fractured hip. Osteoporosis treatments targets bone cells to prevent bone weakening. Additionally, it also significantly reduces menopausal symptoms but increase the risk of breast cancer development. However, other treatments and specific inhibition factors can prevent or delay the formation of breast cancer in women.

Bones hold 99% of the body’s calcium which is involved in the daily turnover of the bones. Two essential cells are involved in the daily turnover of the bones. Osteoblasts, cells responsible for the bone formation taking place by producing a matrix of collagen which becomes mineralised. Osteoclasts cells functions in the breakdown and resorption of the bone tissue. Skeletal homeostasis is maintained through a balance between the activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

The leading cause for osteoporosis is the lack of certain hormones and particularly oestrogen in women. This is because bone loss takes place as a result of oestrogen deficiency. In post-menopausal women an excessive resorption takes place causing bone weakness (osteopenia) and over time osteoporosis.6 During menopause osteoblasts fail to function properly and bone weakening rapidly occurs due to oestrogen levels significantly dropping. Therefore, the risk of osteoporosis in post-menopausal women increases due to a decline in oestrogen levels. Oestrogen regulates the activity of osteoclasts cells which results in slowing the dissolving of the bones.

Treatments

Hormones are the most crucial modulators of bone formation as it has a direct effect on the bones by interacting with receptors. Treatments such as hormone replacements therapy (HRT) are widely used to entirely restore the rate of post-menopausal loss.1 HRT protects against thinning of the bones by increasing the availability of oestrogen levels in the body. It has a direct effect on cells by interacting with receptors at the surface of the cell. Its effect is mediated through a receptor called oestrogen receptor ?. The hormone binds to the receptor and is transported to the nucleus where receptor hormone acts as a switch to turn on the gene. However, many severe side effects are associated with this type of treatments such as breast cancer.

Other treatments such as selective oestrogen receptor modulator (SERM) also target oestrogen receptors in the body. SERM’s act as agonist or antagonist depending on different tissues in the body, it blocks oestrogen functioning in various parts of the body in order to increase the availability of the hormone in receptors located inside the bones for increased bone formation. Raloxifene is a selective oestrogen receptor modulator that has oestrogenic actions on the bone and anti-oestrogenic actions on other tissues such as the breast and the uterus. However, both treatments HRT and SERM are highly effective in alleviating menopausal symptoms. 4

Activation of RANK-ligand leads to breast cancer

Receptor activator nuclear factor (RANK) is a protein that is involved in the activation of bone formation and regulation of osteoclastic bone resorption. It acts primarily as a signal pathway to increase bone removal. Bone resorption is dependent on a cytokine known as RANK-L. RANK binds to its receptor RANK-L when expressed by the osteoclasts to activate and stimulate the osteoclastic formation which leads to bone resorption.

HRT triggers the RANK-L protein in breast cells which allows it to multiply causing a tumour. Studies and researches have shown that the activation of RANK is responsible for causing cancer in patients with osteoporosis.3 Therefore, blocking the RANK pathway with a drug can prevent breast cancer and also stop normal bone destruction.

Studies showed that women taking HRT had a higher rate of developing breast cancer. After 5 years of follow up, women taking these hormones had a 20% increase in breast cancer risk compared with placebo group. Therefore, the longer HRT medication is taken for, the greater the risk of breast cancer. In the fourth year and thereafter, breast cancer rates were higher in the oestrogen group with a significant trend of increasing breast cancer over time.

Raloxifene shows a reduced incidence of breast cancer by 27% compared to HRT. A statistically significant reduction in the incidence of breast cancer is shown among women taking raloxifene compared with the placebo group.5 According to the graph above raloxifene appeared to be most effective in reducing the incidence of breast cancer compared to HRT.

HRT aims to reduce the level of bones affected by increasing oestrogen in the body. However, it is one of the leading causes for breast cancer in women. Raloxifene is an alternative treatment used for patients with osteoporosis to reduce the level of bone dissolving and preventing severe side effects such as breast cancer. A separate study has shown that women who have abandoned HRT treatment had reduced breast cancer rates by 6%.2A study contradicting, based on several years of clinical trials shows that HRT is not the direct cause for breast cancer as women are at an elevated risk of developing breast cancer with age. Lifestyle also plays a great role in breast cancer development, the study reported that standard way of living such as smoking, fish intake, working on a night shift and birth weight increases the relative risk of breast cancer development and not synthetic hormones alone.1 Therefore if women were to abandon HRT drugs, normal daily life routine should also be considered in order to reduce the risk of breast cancer.

References

Bluming A Z. (2009). Hormone Replacement Therapy: Real Concerns andFalse Alarms. The Cancer Journal. 15 (2), 93-104.
Callaway E. (2010). Bone-disease drug could treat breast cancer. Nature.10 (3).
Castellano D et al. (2011).The Role of RANK-Ligand Inhibition in Cancer: The Story of Denosumab. The Oncologist. 16 (2), 135-146.
H Michael. (2007). Differential effects of selective oestrogen receptor. British Journal of Pharmacology. 151 (8), 384-395.
Natl J. (2008). Reduced Incidence of Invasive Breast Cancer With Raloxifene Among Women. Cancer Inst. 100 (12), 854-861.
Sambrook P. (2006). Osteoporosis. The Lancet. 367 (3), 2010-2018.
Watanabe K et al. (2010).Osteocytes in Normal Physiology and Osteoporosis. Springer. 2 (8), 224–232.

Introduction

Inactivity in girls and young women is an increasing public health issue in Scotland. 65% of 14 year old girls do not reach recommended levels of physical activity and 43% of adult women do little or no exercise (Sportscotland, 2011). It is therefore understandable that the government is striving to tackle this problem by implementing initiatives such as Fit for Girls (FFG) in secondary schools across Scotland. The Fit for Girls programme is a joint initiative between the Youth Sport Trust and sportscotland, aimed at increasing physical activity participation among girls aged 11 to 16 years. The programme was piloted in 2008 and is being delivered to 296 mainstream and 11 additional support needs (ASN) schools across Scotland, over a 3 year time schedule. The primary objective of the programme is to bring about sustainable change in schools that moulds a positive future for girls’ participation in physical activity. Fit for Girls aims to achieve this by providing an interactive environment for participants, emphasising the importance of consulting girls, working with them to establish reasons for disengagement and developing strategies to enhance future participation. The principles of respect, empowerment and participation are inherent of the programme. Girls who are currently inactive or have low levels of participation are encouraged to express their thoughts, feelings and ideas in a real and honest way. It is hoped that the Fit for Girls programme, coupled with the engagement of PE staff and Active Schools Coordinators, has the ability to make a significant impact on girls’ physical activity levels as well as their perception of physical activity and sport.

Funding

Sportscotland is a Quango, that is, an organisation that is funded by taxpayers, but not controlled directly by central government. Sportscotland are provided with a budget from the government and they choose how, and where to distribute the funds. A sum of ?530, 000 was invested into the Fit for girls programme in 2008. This would finance the roll out of the program over a 3 year period. Each participating secondary school was entitled to apply for a ?700 start up grant. There was flexibility in how the grant was spent. However, funding could be used to employ staff or coaches to deliver sessions as this was not viewed as being sustainable in the long term however, the funding could be spent to train staff, volunteers, parents and senior pupils, to provide them with the essential skills and confidence required to deliver the activities. Other uses included modernising changing facilities, upgrading equipment, and providing development pathways for senior pupils. Whilst many acknowledge the importance of sport and its potential to greatly impact on a nation’s health, culture and pride, it can be argued that for a country in severe economic crisis, the ?46,257,000 savings, which could be achieved from cutting sportscotland may be better invested elsewhere in the public sector. It is due to this controversial issue that many organisations and projects such as FFG are hanging in the balance. They are completely dependant on funding and as FFG has reached the end of its three year schedule, it is not yet known whether their funding will be extended.

Links to Elite Sport and Mega Events

The links between Fit for Girls and elite sport is limited. It is unlikely that a project of this nature and capacity will unearth a substantial amount of new talent, of the standard to perform at an elite level. The links between this project and events such as the 2012 and 2014 Olympic and commonwealth games appear to be relatively minimal. These mega events are elite sport and competition at the highest possible level and see countries and athletes from all over the world participate whereas, FFG is sport at a basic, introductory level and is a national strategy within Scotland, exclusive to girls of a certain age. However, by focussing on the foundation principles and objectives of both events, links can be made.

“The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have conquered but to have fought well.” (Olympic creed). Whilst the Olympic Games and FFG appear to be at polar opposites on the sporting spectrum, they both share a similar philosophy which places great importance on participation and personal achievement. It is evident that hosting the 2012 Olympics and 2014 Commonwealth games provides the nation with a great opportunity to capitalize on the hype and publicity of the games and foster this as a catalyst for change and sporting development. This is recognized by reaching higher which acknowledges that “Major sporting events such as the Olympic, Paralympics and Commonwealth Games provide electrifying experiences for competitors and spectators. If such events are to provide an enduring legacy, they must be used as catalysts for change.” – (Reaching Higher, 2007).

In FFG’s 1st year, participation levels in P.E and extra- curricular activities rose from 18- 27% This increased participation, expands the national pool of elite sporting talent for events such as the commonwealths, illustrating that FFG does link to elite sport and its major events. In the same way, these mega events greatly benefit schemes of this nature. Reaching higher states that, “Volunteers and professional staff are core to the delivery of our vision. Without their expertise people will not get enthused and involved and our sportsmen and women will not reach their potential.”- (Reaching higher, 2007). Whilst it is unlikely that the programme will produce a wealth of new elite sporting talent, FFG does have the potential to produce girls who are passionate about sport and may pursue a career in the sport and leisure industry, in a voluntary, coaching or management and development capacity. This is perhaps the most prominent link to elite sport and mega events and the project has a framework in place to promote and develop this. The level 1, Sports Leader Award is offered to s4 core pupils, this allows them to gain leadership experience, work with Active Schools Coordinators and Sports Development, as well as working with talented girls who are at risk of becoming disaffected. Additionally, the ‘Heartstart’ Training, British Heart Foundation program is offered, teaching pupils emergency aid such as CPR and how to recognise heart attack symptoms. It can therefore be drawn that whilst the links between this program with elite sport and mega events are indirect they are still significant.

Inclusion

The most prominent issue regarding inclusion with this program is that it excludes boys. Through FFG, the young women are receiving higher quality equipment and changing facilities, as well as having a greater deal of input and choice into the curriculum structure. It is evident that this may result in the boys feeling jealous and overlooked, which could have a detrimental effect on male participation levels and motivation. However, Reaching Higher illustrates that with regards to female participation in the 16+ age group: rates stand at 59% against 68% of young men additionally, 40% of girls have dropped out of all sports activity by the time they reach 18 (sportscotland participation survey. 2002-2004). This demonstrates that drop out and participation levels are a greater problem in girls than boys. Studies have suggested that the main reasons for girls drop out in P.E are lack of skill, and feeling embarrassed (Fit for Girls Workshop: Bucking the Trend, 2010). On average, girls enter sport at 7.4 years of age in comparison to boys at 6.8 years old. 47% of girls are reported to be involved with some kind of organized sport by age 6, while 60% of boys of the same age are participating. (Women’s Sports Foundation Research Report 2008). This illustrates that on average, boys have a head start on girls with regards to sports participation and skill development. Research into the sociological dimensions of girls’ physical activity participation concluded that the “traditional subject matter of physical education…privileges boys while disadvantaging girls”. What is sometimes referred to as the “hidden curriculum” in physical education, places great importance on skill level and ability, as well as emphasizing competition, rather than promoting sport and physical activity as part of a healthy lifestyle. (Garrett, R. 2004). The curriculum centre’s around team games and competitive activities and this learning climate, in turn, has often favoured male pupils due to their greater level of experience in a sports environment. Additionally, their confidence to perform athletic skills, which they are both competent and familiar with lead them to enjoy and excel in P.E classes, while girls often experience anxiety and marginalization. Literature also states that women are far more self-conscious than men when participating in sport and physical activity. (Brudzynski, L., William, E. 2010). The Fit for Girls program aims to combat this by adapting the curriculum to include more expressive and artistic activities, in conjunction with this, evidence suggests that the female only environment assists in reduce anxiety and body image concerns “Female PE staff makes me feel more comfortable taking part in activities, especially trampolining and dance.” (Bannockburn High School, S3 pupils.) Many would champion the program for seeking activities and teaching environments which increase female participation in P.E however, it can be argued that with regards to the modernized changing facilities, which include hair dryers and straighteners, the boys are being unfairly discriminated against and are disadvantaged. In today’s society, young men feel the pressure to look a certain way and conform as well as girls, this could be seen as a luxury which if anything, nurtures stereotypical views and creates an even greater sense of segregation and conflict between male and female pupils. Alternatively, Evidence suggests that whilst boys do care about their appearance and would like upgraded facilities, it has a stronger influence on the take-up of females than their male counterparts.

Fit for Girls’ runs in 296 of 376 mainstream high schools, which equates to 79% and only 11 out of 193 ‘ASN’ high schools, equivalent to 6%. Whilst disabled pupils are not completely excluded from this scheme, the figures clearly illustrate that the provision is severely limited. “People with a disability, who equate to one in five of our population, are also less likely to participate in sport” (Reaching Higher, 2007). Therefore, it can be argued that if anything, they are at a greater need for exposure to projects such as this. Conversely, it is evident that there are many children with additional need who do not attend an ASN school, instead they are included in the mainstream schooling system,(Scottish Education Report 2007), suggesting that whilst the program is only operating in 6% of ASN schools, it is likely to be reaching a larger percentage indirectly.

A further issue regarding the inclusion of this program is that it is only delivered in secondary education. It can be postulated that FFG would achieve even greater results if it was to engage with the girls at a younger age i.e. primary school. By interacting with the girls at a younger age, there is more chance of positively influencing their perception of sport and instilling good habits and attitudes however, It has been identified that between the age of 14-18 is the period in their life when most girls drop out of sport, with 40% being completely disaffected by the time they reach 18.

With projects such as this, which rely heavily of funding, there is always going to be issues of inclusion. This is a project which undeniably targets a very specific population, thereby excluding many others however, by analyzing the scheme and what they are striving to achieve, it is difficult to condemn or pick fault in their strategy. The nations’ disengagement with sport and the problems that this creates cannot be tackled with one sweeping solution, whilst FFG may isolate certain groups; it is likely to have a greater success rate by focusing on its target demographic and their specific needs, rather than attempting to reach a larger population on consequently limited funding and resources. Whilst the reasons to target such a specific population are justifiable, the project could be made more sustainable and inclusive if it was integrated into the curriculum for excellence. This appears to be the next logical step forward and would enable the program to flourish and progress without the requirement of additional funding.

Conclusion

In today’s society a physically active lifestyle is recognised as an essential component of healthy living. In addition to the long term health benefits, physical activity during childhood supports holistic development, assisting to prevent overweight and obesity and the health concerns associated with these conditions, as well as enhancing psychological wellbeing. With adolescent girls being identified as at risk of becoming disaffected, The Fit for Girls project set out with clear objectives to increase the participation in sport of this population and improve their experience of sport. There is limited literature evaluating the success of the project to date however, from initial figures and case studies, the project appears to have been a success in achieving its primary objectives. With regards to elite sporting pathways and links to mega events, the connections are extremely limited, only by analysing the basic foundation principles can any parallels be drawn and even then, they are still weak. Undoubtedly there are issues of inclusion with this scheme, by targeting such a specific demographic; it inevitably isolates a wider population. With everything considered, it can be drawn that whilst its links to elite sport are limited and it may be subject to scrutiny over issues of inclusion, the project was successful in achieving its objectives and is a small, but significant stepping stone towards increasing female sports participation. Despite acknowledging the success and importance of this project it could be concluded that the best way forward does not require an extension to the funding, instead, the principle and structure of the project should be addressed and integrated into the curriculum for excellence.

References

Bailey, R., (2005). Evaluating the relationship between physical education, sport and social inclusion. Education Review, 57, (1), 71-90.

Brudzynski, L., William, E. (2010)

Garrett, R., (2004). Negotiating a physical identity: girls, bodies and physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 9 (2), 223-237.

Ferguson, M., (2009). Call for Scottish PE overhaul after damning report. Future Fitness. Sport and Fitness for today’s youth, July. p.5.

Fit for Girls Workshop: Bucking the Trend, (2010)

Hardman, K. (2007). Physical Education: “The future ain’t what it used to be!”

University of Worcester, UK.

Hardman, K., (2008). The Situation of Physical Education in Schools: a European Perspective.

Human Movement, 9 (1), 1-14.

Scottish Executive (2003). Let’s make Scotland more active – A Strategy for Physical

Activity. The Stationery Office, Edinburgh.

Scottish Education Report. (2007)

Wallace, J ., Homes, A. (2007). Fit for the FutureYoung people’s participation in

physical activity in Scottish secondary schools. Scottish Consumer Council, Glasgow.

Women’s Sports Foundation Research Report. (2008)

Reaching Higher. (2007)

www.scotland.gov.uk

www.sportscotland.co.uk.

www.youthsporttrust.org

Introduction

Gothic Literature, originating in the late 18th century, coalesce the rhythmical language and vivid imagery of Romance novels with the dark and terrific supernatural beings, gloomy settings and fiends of classic Horror. Much like horror novels Gothic literature was created to evoke feelings of terror and in the words of Mary Shelley ‘curdle the blood, and quicken the beatings of the heart’ of audience who was predominantly female. Gothic literature of this era was generally written by women, homosexual men and marketed at a female audience. The appeal for contemporary women was believed to be that Gothic literature would ‘allay their doubts about what it takes to be a desirable, beloved woman, and to reassure them that their husbands are not dangerous’as Gothic tends to have a handsome, magnetic suitor or husband who may or may not be a lunatic and/or murderer. The audience expectation of Gothic literature was often based around the setting, language, traditional character roles, supernatural beings and classic horrific entrapment scenarios.

General roles within Gothic literature include a heroic character and villainous beings. Yet it is specifically the female characters within these fictitious novels that are interesting as they are often portrayed as ‘selfless, innocent and virtuous’ women. However, in certain instances their role is subverted or enhanced in some way, and with the likes of more modern gothic fiction and media texts like Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight, Ann Rice’s The Vampire Chronicles and Anthony Shaffer The Wicker Man it is clear that this genre and its traditions have evolved through the centuries. It is widely believed that Horace Walpole’s Castle of Otranto was the original Gothic fiction novel, and rightly so as it incorporated each classic element, set the foundations of attitudes towards women which continued into the 19th Century and furthered with works such as Shelley’s Frankenstein, Samuel Coleridge’s Christabel and Poe’s short stories.

In early Gothic, women were often portrayed as weak, selfless and innocent as clearly shown here in Walpole’s ‘Castle of Otranto’ “she would not only acquiesce with patience to divorce, but would obey, if it was his pleasure,” This not only shows howwomen like ‘Hippolita’ lacked social power, but how they were subjected to male oppression and forced to obey the words of their husbands simply because they were their husbands. However, this marital obedience is subverted in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein in which it is Victor who obeys his wife Elizabeth, when told to come home. It is rather humorous that throughout the novel, although all the women are place in the tradition role, it is Victor, the heroic protagonist, who from the beginning instead of trying to deal with the problem of his monster, faints or falls into a fever. He strangely continues to adopt stereotypical feminine traits such as physical weakness, fainting and illness: “his body dreadfully emaciated by fatigue and suffering. I never saw a man in so wretched a condition”. The constant description throughout of his meek appearance is helps to sustain his femininity.

One could argue that another questionable decision made by Shelley was how every female character within the book apart from Mrs Saville died or were murdered. Caroline Beaufort is a selfless mother who dies taking care of her adopted daughter; Justine is executed for murder, regardless of her innocence; the creation of the female monster is disregarded by Victor because he fears being unable to control her actions once she is animated; Elizabeth waits, impatient but helpless, for Victor to return to her, and she is eventually murdered by the monster. Seeing as Shelley was the daughter of highly respected advocate for women rights and feminism is was striking to the contemporary and modern audiences to see how she effortlessly disregards the lives of the women in the novel firstly, by killing them off. Whilst also eradicating the natural role of women as child bearers when Frankenstein, a male, creates life without the need for a woman and when given the opportunity to create a female he destroys it, for fear of the consequences it could entail. In light of the knowledge that ‘Percy Shelley laid a heavy editorial hand’ on the first manuscript of Frankenstein, one might argue that Percy often ‘seriously misrepresented Mary’s intentions’, and characters and only portrayed the women in such a way that would be acceptable and a true representation of contemporary women of the era. However, it could be argued that as a classic example of society within the 19th century, Mary Shelley was only depicting real life and demonstrating that ‘their model behaviour lowers their resistance to the forces that kill them.’ Implying that their soft and submissive nature will ultimately kill them if they do not retrieve self-empowerment and subvert the traditional role of women.

Nevertheless, the women within ‘Frankenstein’ are still portrayed in a selfless light and they each have small yet significant roles within Frankenstein. Caroline Beaufort, in my opinion is the most selfless and embodies the classic portrayal a woman within this novel. Caroline, ‘possessed a mind of an uncommon mould, and her courage rose to support her in her adversity’ In light of this quote, I noticed that she is, for the most part, mentioned to be helping people whether it be her sick father, Victor or Elizabeth. Mother of both Victor and Elizabeth she died from Scarlet Fever which she contracted whilst nursing Elizabeth back to health, ‘when she heard that the life of her favourite was menaced, she could no longer control her anxiety. She attended her sickbed after knowing the severity of its contagiousness; ‘her watchful attentions triumphed over the malignity of the distemper’. Even on her death bed the fortitude of her good nature takes over as she wishes Victor and Elizabeth‘firmest hopes of future happiness’

Elizabeth Lavenza is the adopted daughter of The Frankenstein’s, despite this, she and Victor later marry and she takes on the role as the devoted wife and waits patiently for Victor’s return from Ingolstadt. ‘She was docile and good tempered, possessed an attractive softness.’ Elizabeth is beautiful, so, by Victor Frankenstein’s judgement, she must be a good and honourable person. Much as the monster is defined by his ugliness, Elizabeth is defined by her attractiveness which was a classic element of a gothic female, one being beautiful whilst lacking personality and a sense of worth. However, throughout the novel there are glimpses of a different side Elizabeth’s character who although she ‘does not share Frankenstein’s alchemical interests, she is educated with him’, like Ligeia character. Elizabeth writes regularly, and it falls to her to describe Justine’s background, and uses her education to assist Justine in her trial when all others believed her to be guilty over the murder of William.

Justine Moritz, William’s nanny, is the final female who isn’t portrayed as ‘innocent’ within the novel but still embodies the traditional depiction of a submissive gothic woman and ultimately meets her inevitable death when hung for the murder of William Frankenstein. When wrongly accused of the murder instead of fighting against the injustice of the circumstantial evidence against her, she fall apart and feels guilty for the death. Believing she should have protected William, as his maternal figure, she confesses, I did confess; but I confessed a lie. I confessed, that I might obtain absolution;’. In the end she falls under the oppression of the male dominated legal system and is hung. Although considered a minor character and is only mentioned briefly she creates a large impression on both Elizabeth and Victor as all throughout the trial he is troubled and wallows in guilt because he knows Justine is innocent and convicted because of crimes of his creature yet he allows her to take the blame.

In addition, to the awareness of male oppression and writers, I often questioned why so many iconic male Gothic authors such as Walpole, William Beckford and M.G Lewis were suspected of homosexuality, as Gothic was traditionally romantic and marketed at female audiences. Some would say that creating strong independent women were a way for the males to channel their unspeakable desires that were suppressed by Sodomy laws which up until 1967 ‘prohibited gross indecency between males, or in more daring cases, to create an underlying confession ‘Ah father, how willingly would I unveil to you my heart! How willingly would I declare the secret which bows me down with its weight! But oh! I fear, I fear–””That you should abhor me for my weakness;…”father!” continued he in faltering accents, “I am a woman!”

Despite the male oppression of the 19th century authors continued to create characters like Ligeia who dominate the story and Poe dedicates the majority of the narrative to her description, one paragraph in particular is solely describing her eyes ‘hue of the orbs, far larger than the ordinary eyes. The obsessive nature of Poe’s narrator could also suggest that the power and pure intelligence of Ligeia has driven him insane creating what some might argue was a drug induced hallucination of his the late Ligeia as he was an avid opium user. The narrator’s obsessive nature and mental breakdown is another classic character motif which runs throughout early Gothic fiction and the strength of Ligeia is really shown when she appears to be able to reincarnate in some way in place of Rowena. Regardless of whether it actually happened Poe reflected her ‘stern passion’ and power well as even after he remarries Rowena ‘the successor of the unforgotten Ligeia’ the narrator is unable put thoughts of Ligeia out of his mind, ‘there is one dear topic, on which my memory falls me not’.

Coleridge’s Christabel is another classic gothic novel which broke the mould of modern literature way before its time. His female characters, Christabel and Geraldine, are a far cry from the traditional underdeveloped female protagonists who often wade through the novel ‘menaced by fiends in a gloomy castle’., but rather plays on the sadistic nature of women and its female readers who ‘enjoy the sensation’of fearfulness. Christabel’s character itself reflects these women who appears to enjoy the thrill of the spell that’s she is under, ‘Yea, she doth smile, and she doth weepSadism is a theme that has been adopted by many modern Gothic texts and Horror films. Characters of the likes of Amanda Young, from the Saw cult movies, pretends to be a victim of the sadistic killer Jigsaw and it comes to light that she enjoys playing the part as she helps to kidnap other victims and has her significant reveal scene at the end of the film allowing her to revel in what she has done. This suggestion of enjoying pain and distress is a revolutionary idea; Coleridge took Gothic heroines to a whole new level in his era as he allowed his audience to delve into the psychological side of his characters. Mental illness and breakdown was not a new subject within Gothic literature but the psychosis often affected male characters, except this level of psychology created new and more interesting female protagonists and subverted the traditional depiction of level headed and innocent women.

Nonetheless, the reader sees that Christabel is not as innocent as she is portrayed at face value, as a young women held under a spell. But her behaviour from the beginning of the tale suggests otherwise as I first wondered why she out so late within the castle grounds praying alone and then the narrator mentions that “She had dreams all yesternight/Of her own betrothed knight” we are not given anymore information on these dreams but they can be seen as innocent or suspicious as she has not seen him for a while. Once Geraldine is inside Christabel’s room, before she is spellbound Christabel offers her wine and “O weary lady, Geraldine,/I pray you, drink this cordial wine!/It is a wine of virtuous powers” Then, Christabel undresses, sits down, “And on her elbow did recline/To look at the lady Geraldine” as she undresses. This interest in watching Geraldine undress seems quite uncharacteristic of Christabel or of an innocent and naive young damsel. This is merely a suspicion of Christabel’s innocence but once the story is reread her action and innocence become questionable and takes us back to the sadistic side of her character and suggests that whilst Geraldine is manipulating the other characters, Christabel is manipulating her audience.

Furthermore Geraldine’s character in Christabel is rather interesting as she was the first female character that I had come across who had so much power over all characters and became the supernatural being within the novel instead of a ghost or hideous creature created in Frankenstein. Firstly her power and influence over the other characters alone contrasts to the stereotypical role of women in traditional Gothic literature. Essentially a witch she casts a spell over Christabel and later she takes Geraldine back into her room and Geraldine undresses, the narrator yells “O shield her! shield sweet Christabel!” , who doesn’t want Christabel look at Geraldine’s body, perhaps in fear of corrupting her innocence. Geraldine is also able to manipulate the male characters as the Baron is smitten with her and hangs on her every word portraying her strong sense of empowerment much like Ligeia who is said to have been smarter than most men.

Conclusion

Another female presented in Gothic literature is the force of nature which is often personified as a woman and a strong female principle. ‘She’ is frequently infiltrated by Gothic characters who brave her strong forces at climatic parts of the novel. Shelley uses stormy weather, darkness imagery and the desolate arctic to provide the perfect ambience for Frankenstein, specifically the epic chase between Victor and The Creature in the middle of the Russian arctic. ‘The abrupt sides of vast mountains were before me; the icy wall of the glacier overhung me, I was cursed by some devil’. Yet although sometimes seen as a curse Victor also describes his recovery from grave illness through his affinity with natural. Although nursed back to health by his closest friends, it is the breathing of the air that finally gives him strength “we passed a fortnight in these perambulations: my health and spirits had long been restored, and they gained additional strength from the salubrious air I breathed, the natural incidents of our progress“. Thus showing another powerful side of the women in gothic who, although shows maternal and mothering qualities by essentially making Victor better, Mother Nature undoubtedly make several strong appearances which also help to present the Gothic nature of the novel. ‘a flash of lightning illuminated the object and discovered its shape plainly to me; its gigantic stature, and the deformity of its aspect, more hideous than belongs to humanity, instantly informed me that it was the wretch, the filthy demon to whom he had given life’.

Increasingly, Muslim women are involved in their countries’ economy as part of the labour force. Saudi Arabia in particular has seen higher numbers of Muslim women become economically active. However, women around the world are disadvantaged in employment for social, cultural and other reasons, and it has been argued that this is particularly true of Muslim women, as in addition to the obstacles faced by women worldwide, they also face additional problems including religious factors, cultural issues and the lack of role-models to encourage enterprise and a culture of women in work. While Saudi Arabia, as a large producer of oil, has a healthy economy, women currently play only a minor role in the work force, and of women available for work, nearly 30% are unemployed, although there are signs that women are starting to play are larger role in the economy.

The study aims to examine the particular obstacles to full participation in the labour market for Muslim women, through looking at their experience in Saudi Arabia. In order to do this, it examines the nature of the social and cultural norms in Saudi Arabia to assess the role they play in oppressing women in the workforce, as well as looking at current legislation and its role.The role played by other factors including childcare, financial issues and personal perceptions is also considered.

A literature review analyses the background in detail, providing a context for the primary study. The literature review covers a number of general areas, for example the social, geographical and cultural factors which surround women’s lives in Saudi Arabia, particularly the nature of the Islamic code which dictates behaviours.Statistics showing the current participation of women in the workforce are given, and the nature of working life for women in Saudi Arabia is analysed.

The primary phase of the research was carried out through interviews with a mix of both quantitative and qualitative data was collected, in order to give a detailed picture of how women working in Saudi Arabia perceive the world of work, as well as one which is statistically valid and reliable. The rationale for taking this particular stance is discussed. 20 women from Saudi Arabia, currently studying in the UK were interviewed. Demographic data was collected, information about work experience and future work plans were also noted. The women were also asked in depth about barriers to working in Saudi Arabia, their awareness of laws and regulations in the workplace, attitudes to marital responsibilities and work, work and religion, and attitudes about gender roles in work.It was found that women face many challenges in the Saudi Arabian workplace, and that 60% of those interviewed were not planning to return to work there. Issues mentioned include the right to work in the same workspace as men, inequalities of pay, and limits on women taking managerial roles over men.It was concluded that the main issue is the cultural diversity between Islamic and non-Islamic societies.Recommendations for Saudi Arabian government, business organisations and the general population are made.

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Title: Factors affecting women working in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

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Acknowledgement

I would like to express my thanks to my advisor, for his suggestions, comments, patience and understanding. Very special thanks to my parents, my father, my mother, my brother and my sister who were continuously supporting me throughout my life and leaving me free in all my decisions.

I would also like to thank my colleagues for their technical support whenever I needed. I would like to thank to Department, university managers, teachers and students with whom I have worked.

Abstract

This study explores the area of career priority in job sàti¾factiîn and job commitment for women in United Kingdom and Nigeria. It investigates key concepts and takes an analytical perspective on contemporary practice. The main focus of the research is on job sàti¾factiîn and job commitment, and how these areas impact on profressional women. The research also looks at aspects of career priority, particularly attempting to gauge its effect on Influence on job sàti¾factiîn and commitment. A literature review looks at existing research in the area, while a primary study collects data from women in the UK and Nigeria looking at job satisfaction. The study aims to examine the factors which influence job satisfaction and commitment for these women, and also looks at the role of career priority with regards to these areas. Data is collected for a number of variables including payment, opportunities, supervision and co-workers, and demographic variables such as age, education, number of dependents, years in business, hours of work, and often work outside the town were also collected in order to examine relationships between these factors and job satisfaction.

Thesis statement

A business orgànisàtiîn can be seen as a cooperative system in which all involved in the organisation work together. To understand such organisations, and particularly to see how their efficiency and profitability can be maximised requires a reliable way to investigate the effectiveness of employees. A number of indicators have been used to do this, including motivation, characteristics of the orgànisàtiîn, communication and job satisfaction.

In this dissertation, we will explore the variables which influence of job sàti¾factiîn and job commitment amongst profe¾¾iînal women and women in managerial positions in the United Kingdom and Nigeria. The discussion will be structured around finding the top priorities for professional and managerial women in both countries in regards to their careers. It will also investigate the differences between professional women and women in management positions in regards to the factors which cause job satisfaction, and will look at the particular needs of older (50+) women in the workplace. It will take into account how different cultures mean that women in the UK and Nigeria have different professional life priorities. The impact that these factors have for organisations is also discussed.

The dissertation will also involve investigating key concepts, for example job satisfaction. There has been considerable debate about the best ways to measure this, and whether certain factors can improve job satisfaction. For example, it can be associated with different type of activities performed by employees (if work offers the opportunity to demonstrate skills and allows the employee to feel challenged, then workers are likely to feel more satisfied by their job). It can also be associated with more prosaic working conditions. These should be adequate, and employees need to work free from danger and in comfortable surroundings. Another key concept is that of professional commitment. Again, considerable research has been directed towards understanding the concept, and analysing the role it plays in organisational efficiency. A high commitment is arguably mandatory if an employee is to fulfil her tasks optimally.

Research Questions

1. What variables influence job satisfaction and job commitment amongst professional and managerial women?

2. Is there a difference between the factors which influence job satisfaction and job commitment for professional women on the one hand, and managerial women on the other?

3. What variables influence satisfaction with job and career, and commitment to job, for older women?

Research Objectives

Women have rarely have been recognised for their full contributions to the workforce. Moreover, women have, historically, been been denied the opportunity to participate outside the home in the public sphere on an equal footing with men.

The main objective of this research is to critically evaluate the factors which influence job sàti¾factiîn and job commitment among managerial and professional women in United Kingdom and Nigeria.It aims to discover which variables are correlated positively and negatively with job satisfaction and commitment. It also aims to discover if there is a difference between women in management and women in the professions in this respect. It also investigates the experiences of older women in the workplace. An associated objective is to assess what organisations could do to improve job satisfaction and commitment.

Chapter one: Introduction

Career Priority, Career Development and Job ½àti¾factiîn

Women make up half the human race, so half of the leaders of humanity should be female on the ground of equity alone (Sweetman 2002). The World Bank’s World Development Report (2006) state that there is a need to improve women’s position in the world of business by various actions including “redistributing access to capital, perhaps by promoting micro-credit, strengthening women’s land rights or access to jobs and welfare programmes, changing affirmative action programs to break down stereotyping and improving access to the justice system”. Poverty, media, land rights, affirmative action, health and parity issues have already been addressed by African countries in both Beijing +5 and +10 reports (Greller, 2003, pp.146-54).However, despite this recognition of the role women can play in business and measures to improve their lot, there is still a need to assess how women actually experience the working environment.

As individuals become aware that career development is important for their personal growth and satisfaction, the question of what role the orgànisàtiîn should play in helping to achieve this goal is raised (Raduan and Naresh, 2009, pp. 55-65). Different approaches have been taken to employee satisfaction, with opinion divided regarding whether organisations can benefit from helping employees advance their career, or whether the best option is not promote professional training and leave personal growth to each employee(Beal and Weiss, 2003, pp. 440–464). These are, research has shown, questions which it is difficult to answer, as they require orgànisàtiîns to consider the impact of intangible variables which are difficult to quantify in terms of baselines (Greller and Simpson 1999, pp.309-47).

However, there is evidence that organisations can benefit from exploring professional development options within Human Resources. There is a particular argument for empowering women through professional development, because it can increase productivity, maintain performance and the best talent. Taylor and Shaw, for example, argue that that a coaching process offered by orgànisàtiîns can be the basis for personal development within the workplace (Taylor and Shaw 1995, pp.76-83). While coaching alone is unlikely to provide everything needed to enhance employee commitment and satisfaction, it can create an atmosphere in which learning is valued, and the acquisition of new knowledge promoted. Coaches can also help valued employees receive feedback on attitudes within the orgànisàtiîn (Ei¾enberger, 2006, pp.500-7).

In conclusion, career development carried out by an organisation, and the act of prioritising employees career, seem to be useful for organisations in terms of improving performance.

Influence of Career Priority and Career Development: Young Managers and Promotion

Although Miller and Homàn have questioned the benefits of career development within orgànisàtiîns, McDermott (2001) states that the process is necessary for the orgànisàtiîn to remain successful. According to McDermott, ‘new young managers’, or NYMs, are taking up managerial positions at ever younger age, which means that it more difficult for these people to gather the skills they need. They come to the position with relatively poor functional and organisational maturity (Karp, 2007, pp.209-23) In short, not only are they new to the position and new to management, but also relatively new to the world of work. They find themselves expected to be in control, and act like a manager, but their personal experience of what this means in practice is severely limited. In cases such as this, professional development programs within the orgànisàtiîn are needed to help employees keep their competitive edge in their new positions (Chovwen, 2006, pp. 68 – 78).

A related issue with repercussions for career development is in the area of promotion. Some suggest (DiLoreto 2002) that employers are unduly prejudiced towards experience rather than capability. Employees consequently feel that years of service are used in an orgànisàtiîn for deciding about promotions. Others have backed up this suggestion. When employers evaluate candidates for promotiîn, they seem to have in mind a specific set of internal factîrs which they take into account when deciding these promotions. From an employer’s point of view, promoting on this basis offers clear benefits: employers invest time and money in employees, so they are often prejudiced towards long-serving workers (Ei¾enberger, 2006, pp.500-7). The effort of training staff new to the company in the way the organisation works is expensive and time consuming. A defined career development programme with support can show employees what can be achieved by loyalty to the organisation and effort on their part (Gerpott and Domsch 2007, pp.103-18)

A career development programme can offer a structured plan for progression within the company. It can include incentives and other ways of promoting advancement. If employees are willing, they will have clear opportunities to advance within the organisation. They are likely to willingly take part in a professional development programme. At the same time, however, a strong desire on the part of employees is for an organisational infrastructure that changes as their career advances (Dreher and Cox 2000, pp. 890–900). It is clear that when employees are more closely involved with the orgànisàtiîns through career development, the process provides benefits both to workers and to the orgànisàtiîn. This sort of internal programme offers a clearly defined way of development which will advance employees careers (Chovwen, 2006, pp. 68 – 78). Conversely, without some form of professional development program in place, it is possible that employees who are focused upon developing their career will become more dissatisfied with their jobs, will look for employment elsewhere and leave the organisation for one which better meets their needs. Many talented people can be lost, and time and money is lost replacing them (Beal and Weiss, 2003, pp. 440–464).

The Nature of a Career

In order to understand the importance of career development for employees, it is necessary to look at the concept of a career. A career can be seen as a series of commitments at each stage of work, a planned set of assignments, and a developing pattern that emerges over time and which can be expressed in in terms of skills and knowledge. Education and training can contribute to a career thus understood, by providing the necessary basis for expanding career options (Dreher and Cox 2000, pp. 890–900).

Other theorists define the concept of a career slightly differently. Adeyinka et al, for example, suggest that the career is a series of work experiences taking place over a lifetime of work, with the combination of these constituting an aspect of a person. Process-oriented researchers point out the implications of understanding the wider concept of a career for senior management (Adeyinka et al, 2007, pp. 14-24). The concept of careers is ever-changing, in direct response to changes in society, changes in the economic environment, and more general changes. Globalisation, the nature of information technology, new lifestyles and new organisational structures all mean that the nature of a career is dynamic (Hackett and Betz, 2001, pp. 326–339) .This is reinforced, from a different point of view, by Allen (1998), who highlights that success in work is often unplanned, and develops organically as people discover their strengths and weaknesses, and play these against available opportunities. It is a process of coming to terms with what works, and what their values are. A work situation can be transformed by one employee, where another might not see the potential in that situation (Allen et al, 1998 pp.159-72).

The notion of travel can also be incorporated into career development. In the increasingly global marketplace, flexibility and the willingness to travel become more and more important for the professional employee of the future. Businesses increasingly encourage people to take more responsibility fîr their careers, and helping employees to “grow” can encourage people to be more mobile (Chovwen, 2006, pp. 68–78).

By taking on board the perspective that organisations have a responsibility to enhance employees ability to learn, dividends can be reaped: employees will improve knowledge, be keen to explore new ideas, and thus contribute to the organisation (Burke, 2001, pp.117-33).

According to Becker (1964), Learning in an organisation can contribute to human capital. It can offer a way to create a ‘race’ effect, as employees perceive ways to move horizontally and vertically within an organisation. They start to see that learning can make them more employable. They also increasingly expect that their career be recognised and that they should be nurtured within the organization. Becker distinguishes between vertical and horizontal career movements, and argues that both are valuable Professional development can work both vertically and horizontally, to increase career opportunities and offer greater flexibility (Burke and McKeen, 1994, pp.22-8) .

Chapter two: Literature Review

Overview: The Nature of Job Satisfaction

Orgànisàtiîns can be seen as cooperative systems of complex relationships between staff. In order to enhance their functionality, it is necessary to have a reliable way to understand what makes the members of an organisation work most effectively. Common indicators of employee effectiveness include variables such as motivation, the characteristics of the orgànisàtiîn, communication and job satisfaction. Understanding how these factors work (alone and together) is an important step in understanding the ways in which the people making up organisations connect with each other, and in turn will help management make the right decisions about preventing or resolving the various problems that may be presented by workers (Dreher and Cox 2000, pp. 890–900).

While the notion of job satisfaction is complex, one important factor is the type of activities performed by an employee (i.e., that the work has the opportunity to show skills and that it offers a degree of challenge and hence keeps the employee’s interest). In addition to motivating factors, employees should also be adequately compensated through wages, salaries and other aspects of a remuneration package. They should also experience adequate working conditions, without danger or discomfort, in order to give the best performance (Greller and Stroh 2003, pp.146-54). In addition, employees might hope that their line manager is friendly and understanding, and can listen to them when they approach him or her (Ei¾enberger, 2006, pp.500-7). Poor levels of job satisfaction can have long-lasting and negative consequences for organisations: a dissatisfied employee is more likely to leave, and a group of dissatisfied employees can lead to poor industrial relations, for example in disputes over conditions (Gerpott and Domsch 2007, pp.103-18).

Because job satisfaction is important to the commitment of employees, there has been substantial research into both the links between satisfaction and performance, and the ways in which satisfaction can be improved. There has also been investigation into the precise nature of the concept, as definitions vary. As early as the 70’s and 80’s, Hackman and Oldham proposed an influential definition which broke down the concept into five inter-related factors: task variety, skill variety, feedback, autonomy and task significance (Hackman and Oldham 1980). That is, under this ‘job characteristics’ model, satisfaction is an outcome of how varied the tasks the employee is called upon to perform, and whether they require a range of skills; of whether the employee gets appropriate, regular and effective feedback on how well they are doing in their job; on whether they are able to carry out the work without undue supervision, and whether the tasks they are asked to do are meaningful in terms of larger contexts (Sears et al 2006, p.64).Others have a simpler attitude to the nature of job satisfaction: Porter (1961) for example saw it as a state in which the employee perceives that the rewards he or she is given are at a level that is acceptable to the employee, while Locke (1976) describes it as a psychological response following upon an appraisal of the circumstances of employment (Birley and MacMillan 1997, p. 112). There are therefore various definitions of the concept, but there seems to be a common theme that satisfaction with a job is linked to various motivational factors, although different writers identify different factors in their analyses.Hackman and Oldham (1980) it was mentioned identify a set of five factors: others pick out different aspects of work which can be associated with job satisfaction, for example wages, supervision, the extent to which the worker’s achievements are recognised, opportunities for advancing within the company and within a career, social standing, leisure opportunities as well as union activity can play a part (Greenhaus et al 1990, pp. 64-86). Herzberg makes an important distinction between ‘hygiene’ and ‘motivating’ factors for job satisfaction. Whereas the non-existence of hygiene factors can lead to dissatisfaction, their presence alone will not cause an employee to be satisfied with his or her job. Hygiene factors include pay and other remuneration, company policy, and methods of supervision. Motivating factors are those which, where present, can lead to satisfaction. These include being recognised for achievements, possibilities to advance in the organisation, and enjoyment of doing the job itself (Shell and Staff 2002, p. 171).

Theories such as Herzberg’s and Hackman and Oldham have an objective perspective which looks at the circumstances in which an employee works, rather than at how employees perceive these circumstances. Others take a more psychological approach. According to Blum and Naylor (1968), job satisfaction arises as a result of differences and discrepancies between the aspirations which the worker has and the opportunities presented by the orgànisàtiîn to fulfil these aspirations, as well as from differences between expectations and achievements affecting employee motivation, to the extent that they feel free to act on various alternatives for further work (Gàttiker, 2008, pp.569-91).

For the purposes of this study, both perspectives on employee satisfaction seem useful.While attempts to understand job satisfaction which look at external circumstances and objective factors allow a wider perspective, I also believe that it is necessary to look at the individual perceptions which make each employee unique. Blum and Naylor (1968) I feel have a particularly valuable insight into employee motivations, and their expectations.How workers perceive factors such as opportunity and orgànisàtiînal development, work environment, wages and salaries, supervision, nature of work and other activities developed in the workplace, are as important as these factors considered objectively (Hackett and Betz 2001, pp. 326–339)

The following study is also influenced by the complex nature of job satisfaction. Satisfaction is achieved through meeting the needs resulting from the field and work factors and, and is the product of a variety of motivational factors, with the need for hygiene factors to be present also.It results from a complex interplay of different attitudes that workers have in regards to wages, supervision, recognition, promotion opportunities (among others), but is also linked to other factors such as age, health, family relationships, social position, recreation and other activities organized labour, and social policies (Carr, 1997, pp.331-44).

A Holistic Concept of Job Satisfaction

The study is particularly influenced by the holistic concept of job satisfaction, whereby happiness is not merely the absence of negative factors, but should be seen as the overall welfare of the individual, physical, spiritual, moral and emotional. Under this viewpoint, even where there is a good orgànisàtiînal climate, if the individual is badly treated in other respects, for example if the person is excluded, stigmatized or undervalued, that individual will still be unsatisfied in his or her job (Judge et al 2002, pp. 530–541). Judge et al (2002) suggest that while there can be a good orgànisàtiînal climate, if an individual’s religious rights are violated, for example, this can lead to dissatisfaction and undermine any contribution that individual makes to the organisation. A generally acceptable organisational climate can be undermined if the holistic nature of employment is not taken into account. There is a need for employees needs to be understood.

The elimination of sources of dissatisfaction can lead to better employee performance, and is reflected in a positive attitude towards the orgànisàtiîn. Where job dissatisfaction exists, relationships of trust between employee and employee are likely to break down (Ei¾enberger, 2006, pp.500-7).

We have seen above that job satisfaction can be seen as a function of perceived discrepancies between what the individual believes he should be given in respect to his position as an employee, and what he actually gets in that position. That is, it is the result of a comparison between the contributions made by the individual with respect to work and the product or result of that work (Judge et al 2001, pp. 25–51) . It should also be recognised that both satisfaction and dissatisfaction with regards to jobs are relative concepts, dependent upon comparisons made by the individual in terms of his or her contribution, and also upon the results obtained by other individuals in their work environment or framework (Greenhaus et al1990, pp.64-86).

Based on the concepts expressed above, it is possible to develop a working concept of job satisfaction which both includes the workers personal feelings in the work situation as well as the way they satisfy their needs through interaction with other factors in the workplace (Locke, 2006, pp. 1297–1343). This concept, I believe, both includes the need to address the requirements of specific occupational factors, but also takes into account the fact that satisfaction is achieved through various motivational factors. It follows that job satisfaction can be broken down into three basic areas: meeting the aspirations of individuals, (Greller and Simpson 1999, pp.309-47), the satisfaction of basic needs, and an individual’s positive evaluation of his work (Lock and Lathan xxxx). Some claim that job satisfaction is so essential to worker performance that, despite being invisible, it is a condition of employment necessary to productivity (Ornstein, 1990, pp.1-19).Work satisfaction, where it exists, can lead to great results for organisations, and conversely, where dissatisfaction exists, employees may require more time to do their job, as they are depressed and anxious about the lack of incentives to work. Job satisfaction can be seen as a symbol of many related but different features of work for employees (Hackett and Betz, 2001, p. 326-339).

It should also be noted that the different ways of understanding job satisfaction can also apply more or less to particular work environments. Different types of working conditions (factory, office, etc) might be associated with different factors. ½àti¾factiîn in job at one location, for example, might be based on the necessities of life such as education, social facilities and shelter. Workers need to be paid enough to ensure they have someone clean and decent to live. A worker who does not have the necessary funds will have difficulty meeting the requirements made of him or her by society. The ability to work might be affected if basic conditions are not met.In such circumstances, job sàti¾factiîn is influenced by the type of employment, the local environment and the basic needs of employees (Mutchler et al 1997, pp.S4-S12).

It is important not to downplay the role of employee emotions. Sometimes emotions are felt to have no place in the workplace, however the connection the employee has to the workplace can be seen as an emotional one, resonant of family connections, and with shared feelings of purpose and importance with other people in the company.

The Measurement of Job Satisfaction

It is useful to look in some detail at ways in which job satisfaction has been measured. There has been a great deal of work on the subject by previous researchers, and this work, even work which dates back to the mid 70’s, is useful in understanding how best to measure this attribute.

From the early years of the 20th century, attempts have been made to address the concept of job satisfaction, and it has become one of the most widely studied dimensions of the working life of employees. An early approach was naively psychologistic, assuming that job satisfaction is simply a general, emotional response to the work situation (Taylor and Shaw 1995, pp.76-83).Later approaches suggested that job satisfaction has two related components which are distinct: the individual emotion which expresses how the individual is orientated towards the work (expressed, for example, by statements of the nature ‘I like my job’, ‘I look forward to work every day’) together with an objective evaluation of àn individual’s work and the cognitive personal that meet the needs (for example, whether the individual is adequately compensated fîr the work, whether he or she is given adequate recognition for this work). Many aspects of work (or dimensions) have been identified as useful to link with job satisfaction. These include the social aspects of work (for example, any appreciation or recognition from a supervisor, or from the orgànisàtiîn as a whole); compensation and benefits; conditions of work (e.g., physical conditions, job security); and the opportunities the job offers for personal growth (e.g. training, education and promotiîn). Thus the notion of job satisfaction has been broken down into separate elements, which can be measured (Burke and McKeen 1994, pp.22-8).

The relevance of being able to measure the factors which make up job satisfaction is that it can lead to career development and, for the organisation, more effective workers and a more productive company (½chleicher et al 2004, pp. 165–177). By encouraging job satisfaction, an organisation can develop workers who are more professional, with people who are working in positions which are satisfying for them. Understanding how to encourage jobs satisfaction means understanding the best ways to measure it. Job satisfaction determinants are both individual and situational (Burke, 1993, pp.341-52), and the measurement of these determinants is the subject of the following section.

There are a number of different techniques available for measuring satisfaction at work, including a variety of scales. Many involve the use of a questionnaire, either self-administered or administered through a researcher (the latter form is the most common). For instance, scales can be used to comprehend the extent to which employed people are satisfied with different aspects of their working life (e.g. benefits) (½troh, 1992, pp. 251–260). Measures such as questionnaires can be used by organisations in order to better understand their employees: managers can interview their staff and ask them to give responses through a questionnaire (or carry out a face-to-face interview) in order to assess their level of sàti¾factiîn using scales. Scales such as these have several advantages, including high reliability (that is, they have been shown to achieve reliable results across different testing conditions), high levels of validity (that is, the scales have been shown to measure what they set out to measure) and being easy to administer in practice (they are relatively inexpensive, comprehensive, and do not tie up lengthy time resources (Dreher and Cox 2000, pp. 890–900). At the same time, there are some limitations to using scales to assess job satisfaction, for example whether they adequately collect the employees’ subjective experiences of the job, and whether employees feel embarrassed to reveal their feelings to their superiors (Taylor and Shaw 1995, pp.76-83).

There are a number of different ways scales can be used to measure satisfaction. Different researchers have used pictoral and/or text-based scales. Others have attempted to develop scales which can assess affective aspects, as well as cognitive ones (Karp, 2007, pp.209-23). Typically, job satisfaction is measured through a variety of questions in stages, asking respondents to pick answers from a Likert scale, for example on a scale of one to ten where one indicates extreme dissatisfaction, five indicates being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, and ten indicates extreme satisfaction. Likert scales can also measure answers from one to five or one to seven, for example, and measure agreement rather than satisfaction. Another, rather different approach asks respondents to judge a series of faces which are designed to indicate level of satisfaction. Respondents are asked to select the face which most accurately expresses his or her feelings about different aspects of job satisfaction. In general, the faces scale seems to have the potential to measure dimensions as successfully as other more traditional response formats (Gerpott and Domsch 2007, pp.103-18).

With measurement, there is an issue relating to how we distinguish overall job satisfaction on the one hand, and secondary aspects of job satisfaction on the other. Many measurement instruments divide satisfaction into smaller elements, as well as asking about overall job satisfaction in order to capture both aspects. Overall satisfaction can be judged by responses to general statements, for example “I enjoy working here” (Ei¾enberger 2006, pp.500-7). Multi-faceted measurement instruments are often complex, including categories of balances and measures, and this gives them a number of advantages including better ability to measure job satisfaction. They also, typically, are fairly straightforward to administer, although instruments vary considerably in length and in terms of the number of facets measured (Gàttiker, 2008, pp.569-91). Complex measures of job satisfaction also have the advantage that they offer different concrete ways to assess satisfaction, which can offer a greater, in-depth understanding of worker motivation. Fîr example, even if an employee is generally overall satisfied with his or her job, he or she might be dissatisfied with particular aspects of the work, for example the manner in which he or she is supervised. This allows the organisation to have a fuller understanding of how employees can be motivated, and hence are better equipped to improve overall productivity. It is therefore necessary both that an instrument assesses overall satisfaction, as well as the details of the different dimensions which contribute to satisfaction (Allen, 2004, pp. 127–136).

There is also a need for measurement instruments to capture a third element, the emotional responses of employees as well as their cognitive ones. To some extent, measures of job satisfaction tend to capture cognitive elements rather than the emotional ones. However, some at least have a more emotional approach, and are not merely limited to what employees think about their work situation. Although both types of measures tend not to vary a great deal with respect to their trustworthiness and soundness, the two measures are very different in type, and frequently reveal quite different responses. Cognitive measures of job satisfaction might reveal overall satisfaction with the job, while emotional measures reveal dissatisfaction, for example. (Bauer, 2006, pp. 1–30). Fîr instance, employees might understand that their work situation is generally satisfying, that they are well-compensated for their work, and that the pay structure and career prospects are good, while still feeling that things could be better somehow (Dreher and Cox 2000, pp. 890–900). Earlier I discussed the importance of a holistic approach to job satisfaction, and this seems to underline this. Even if an employee recognises that objectively his or her work conditions are good, but feels emotionally that something is lacking, that employee is less than fully satisfied.In addition measurement instruments designed to capture emotional responses are also useful for predicting subsequent behaviour on the part of employees, and also useful as general attitude indicators (and this has recently demonstrated in research, particularly in regards to job satisfaction) (Beal and Weiss, 2003, pp. 440–464). More recently, there has been a move towards using qualitative techniques to capture job satisfaction, including in-depth verbal reports which can assess less linear dimensions than Likert scales (Beal and Weiss, 2003, pp. 440–464). Interpretations of this type try to capture important components of job satisfaction that are missed by quantitive techniques, through a focus upon language and the way it is used to express subjective experience.Nuances of speech can be used to throw light upon job satisfaction in this way. In more detail, this method transcribes verbatim stories from respondents where they elaborate upon their experiences of working life and particularly their job satisfaction. They are also asked to describe experiences which reflect dissatisfaction with working experience.These are analysed with a close reference to the language used by respondents to describe situations which have affected them, and this can offer a new perspective to complement more traditional research (Adeyinka et al, 2007, pp. 14-24).

An interesting new methodology has been developed for the purpose of measuring satisfaction with wages and remuneration for worker labour. This is another method which attempts to measure the emotional component of satisfaction (Burke 1994, pp.22-8). A distinct sampling method is used to gather suitable respondents, developed for psychological research but with wider applications. ‘Ecological Momentary Assessment’ or EMA. It is claimed to be a more accurate measure of emotions and mood, and to have a wider scope than traditional qualitative methods (Beale and Weiss 2003). It is a ‘real time’ technique which involves collecting data from subjects as they experience the phenomena of concern. Because it does not rely upon a subjects recall, the data collected is assumed to be a more accurate set, which hasn’t been distorted by perceptions about how the world operates, and is not biased by events subsequent to the event recalled or current mood. It is also claimed that it allows non-laboratory environments to provide more reliable data (Smyth and Stone 2003, pp. 35-52).

EMA can be used to investigate job satisfaction, and particularly the emotional state of those who experience it, more accurately. Fleeting emotional and psychological experiences can be recorded more fully, and it also allows changes over time to be mapped (Allen, 1999, pp.1113-37).Fîr example, an employee might be assessed using EMA over a period of days or weeks, with data collected at regular intervals over the day to create an index or map of his or her mental picture of satisfaction. Thi¾ has advantages in the assessment of job satisfaction, for example it can look at how feelings change over time and in response to different circumstances, although it involves particularly intensive, and higher-cost, research methods (Bauer, 2006, pp. 1–30).

In general, measurement techniques designed to uncover the subjective experiences of job satisfaction have led to a number of discoveries. Job satisfaction seems to be one of the more important aspects of an individual’s career, and seems to be a function of a number of factors, which can be divided into three main categories: individual aspects of a person’s psychological make-up and response to events, the orgànisàtiîn’s characteristic and work practices, and the ways in which the two areas intersect August, 2001, pp.62-81) It may appear obvious that job satisfaction is a function of both individual personality and working environment. In terms of personality traits which determine levels of satisfaction, personal stability and positive self-efficacy have been suggested to be important: research suggests that people with higher levels of self-efficacy, more positive emotions and greater self-esteem are less likely to feel negatively about work, and hence have higher degrees of job satisfaction (Adeyinka et al, 2007, pp. 14-24) Other researchers, looking at the relationship between job satisfaction and personality have suggested that there are five factors of importance in explaining how psychology determines satisfaction. These five factors are: neuroticism, extraversion, openness of the individual to experience, kindness, and conscientiousness. The strongest relationship is thought to hold between level of neuroticism and job satisfaction.It is perhaps only common sense that people who demonstrate higher levels of neuroticism in their relationships or elsewhere in their lives are also likely to be less satisfied with their jobs, and existing research suggests a negative correlation between the two. However degree of extraversion and job satisfaction on the one hand, and level of conscientiousness and job satisfaction on the other are both positively correlated; as one increases so does level of satisfaction reported. (Beal and Weiss, 2003, pp. 440–464)

From the above, it seems clear that not only do objective aspects of organisational structure influence employee job satisfaction, but also individual psychology plays an important part. In fact, levels of Job satisfaction may also have a hereditary element to them. For example, research in 2004 looked at the experience of job satisfaction amongst twins, finding that job satisfaction can be inherited, identical twins reared apart showed similar levels of job satisfaction, even if they do jobs which differ very markedly from twin to twin (Allen et al 2004, pp. 127–136). Essentially, there are a number of distinct factors that determine job satisfaction.

Job satisfaction is clearly very important for improving organisational efficiency and profit. An employee’s satisfaction with his or her job will affect their perceptions and change the way they work. Historically, perhaps the most studied aspect of employment is job satisfaction. At this heart of this fact is perhaps the idea that job satisfaction drives motivation and commitment, and these two factors are very important in shaping how effectively employees work. For many decades organisations have taken on board the importance of job satisfaction, and taken positive steps to support worker empowerment, redesign jobs so they are more interesting and rewarding, offer a variety of tasks to work on as part of a job, all following an assumption that employees would not be so bored and would be more satisfied if they have varied rather than highly repetitive jobs. (Carr, 1997, pp.331-44). However, decades of research in this field have reported some conflicting results. While there is some confirmation that certain factors can enhance job satisfaction, and through it, performance, including adequate feedback, using a variety of skills, having relatively few tiers of management for example. However, the relationship between these factors and job satisfaction are very much mitigated by the personality of employees. Some employees value flexibility, others do not: some employees welcome responsibility while others avoid it.It follows that the relationship between environmental job conditions and employee satisfaction is a tricky one to understand (Dreher and Cox 2000, pp. 890–900).

The concept of ‘fit’ or correspondence, is also relevant here. Correspondence can be thought of as the extent to which a person and the work situation ‘fit’ together. At the orgànisàtiînal level, ‘fit’ between both persîn and the environment (PE), and ‘fit’ between person and the orgànisàtiîn (PO) is required. There are different approaches to assessing ‘fit. It can be measured by means of demographics, or by looking at the values held by a person, or personal traits. It is generally believed that the closer the match between person, organisation and working environment, the better the results, including higher levels of job satisfaction (Greenhaus et al 1990, pp.64-86). For example, a highly competitive individual will be most satisfied by a job in which he or she is able to compete against others for prizes perceived as valuable, and in an organisation in which competiveness is valued and rewarded, and where other competitive people are located. In general, many discoveries made through empirical research can lead to helpful ways to improve job satisfaction (Chovwen, 2006, pp. 68–78)

Job Satisfaction and Gender

The current study is particularly concerned with the experiences of women with regards to job satisfaction. Career satisfaction is part of the way successful professionals think about their role.Research has suggested that job satisfaction is particularly important for older women, and for those in professional roles. It also seems likely that women are more focussed upon careers which provide job satisfaction. (Burke, 1995, pp.81-96) Although the results from existing studies have gone some way towards exploring the factors which mean women in particular are satisfied with their jobs, particularly for management staff and older women, more research is needed to identify the factors which cause satisfaction, and look at the experiences of wider groups of women (½eibert et al 2001, pp. 219–237).

Age also makes a difference. Research suggests that while differences between gender are less obvious in early career, by mid-career woman in particular are less satisfied with career and work than men are (Schneer and Reitman, 1994, pp.199-207) They are also less satisfied with their remuneration than are men. However, while women are less satisfied with their jobs, certainly by their middle years, than are men, there is an argument that women can make unique contributions to the work place, for example Feyer suggests, for example, that women tend to have greater levels of flexibility and a greater ability to handle difficult situations in a calm manner (Feyer xxxx).Coven argues that antagonistic attitudes towards women in the work place can adversely damage men’s careers, although also found, when researching women workers, that most had suffered sexual discrimination in the past (Coven xxx). Burke and McKeen found that mentoring is particularly useful for women staff (Burke and McKeen 1993, pp.341-52).

Education is also an important factor for women’s job satisfaction, with research suggesting that higher levels of educational achievement are linked with commitment to the organisation and job (Adeyemo (xxxx). It is possible that greater knowledge enables employees to be more aware of the factors which contribute to their commitment . Under this view, the idea that objective factors, uncovered by quantitative research, are most important in determining job satisfaction, would seem to be most appropriate. The opposing view, we saw earlier, is that subjectivity and employee psychology are the main determinants of job satisfaction.There has been a great deal of progress in terms of women’s social standing and gender equality over the last 100 years in the workplace (Bailey, 1995, pp.280-8) and this success has doubtless influenced professional women, in their attitudes towards work (Bauer, 2006, p. 1-30).

Nowadays, however, while there are more opportunities for women than ever before, the increasingly global business environment means both increased competition for jobs and exposure to nations where the treatment of women in work is still sexist. Most professions are still dominated by their male counterparts, who are still given the best opportunities for career development for example. Worldwide, the majority of women face a difficult time at work; they may suffer second rate pay, reduced rights and less chance of promotion (Adeyinka et al, 2007, p. 14-24). We have seen above that career progression and growth is one of the main ways to achieve job satisfaction, but it seems that women’s career progression options are more limited than those of men in many countries still.Women also suffer from the psychological impact of negative attitudes towards them in the workplace. If repeated, this can lead to lower self esteem, and thus poorer performance in the job. Objective rewards, such as incentives, may also be lower for women than men (Arvey, 2009, p. 187-192)

Nigeria has a fairly good track record on women’s rights in the workplace. In general African countries in the tropical areas know the importance of women’s formal participation in government. By the mid-2000s, those countries had concentrated on unifying and consolidating the position of various government women’s groups as well as other organizations. At the same time, military regimes in Nigeria, Upper Volta (renamed Burkina Faso in 2004); Ghana, Mali, and Senegal returned their countries to civilian rule. Whatever approach governments took, there was a shared awareness that they could not remain in power unless they addressed the issue of popular participation in the political system, and that included addressing women’s rights (Greller and Simpson 1999, pp.309-47). Women across Africa in general are involved in creating significant change in their countries. An example of one who has made a difference is Amie Kandeh. Her work in the area of gender-based violence in Sierra Leone was recognized by the International Rescue Committee (IRC) when she was awarded the Sarlo Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award in 2008. She helped develop and coordinate the Sexual Assault Referral Center (SARC) project, one of the IRC’s most successful gender-based violence programs. (Salthouse, 1996, pp.353-64) In 2004, under Kandeh’s leadership, UNHCR named the SARC project one of the seven best practiced gender-based violence programs worldwide. In 2007, Kandeh led a lobby group that helped pass three gender bills into law: the Divorce Act, Domestic Violence Act and Devolution of Estates Act and Registration of Customary Marriage. Examples such as the one of Kandeh illustrate that women have made progress in Africa; however the extent to which this progress has translated into the workplace is questionable.

Attitudes influence many different areas of life, including careers, behaviours, and results. They also influence career choices, work experience, occupational health, the way people view work in general and perceptions about gender, race and other demographics. Therefore it is important to understand the importance of gender in the workplace (Weiss, 2002, pp. 173–194). It should be acknowledged that men and women differ considerably in their attitudes towards their careers, and many different factîrs contribute to these differences. Present actions, attitudes and experiences should all be seen as a function of a lifetime of socialisation and in-bred learning. The relationships between significant others during the formative years is particularly important here. Parents, siblings, teachers, guidance counsellors, adult role models, peers, and the influence of the media all play a part in determining how individuals see themselves and others and how they view the impact of gender (Schneer and Reitmann 1994, pp.199-207).

To examine the role of conditioning in more detail, it has been argued that parents treat boys and girls differently. For example, from an early age children are given toys thought to be appropriate to their gender play (e.g., boys play with trucks, girls have fun with dolls). They are also taken to classes and recreational activities according to their gender (for example, football for boys and dance for girls). Teachers can play a role as adult models, other individuals become involved as guidance consultants, members of the extended family and family friends. While this is not always the case, there is marked tendency for all these influences to reinforce the idea that men and women are different, and should do different things. This creates a set of expectations in the child about how men and women differ, and what each is capable of (Burke, 2001, pp.117-33). Boys, it might be generally said, are more physically active, whereas girls are more sensitive and sociable. Therefore, people who control the child’s social environment consistently and constantly reinforce à set of learned expectations about gender-appropriate behaviour (Weiss, 2002, pp. 173–194).

A great deal is done by the media to encourage this gender polarity. Even educational materials reveal gender stereotyping. To some extent, textbooks still often portray women and men in stereotypical occupations (for example, men as doctors and women as carers) and stereotypical community roles (e.g., fathers go out to work and mothers stay at home). Furthermore, children’s stories are more likely to feature men as key characters than women (Hànssîn et al 1997, pp.202-33). Similar things are done in film and television programmes, where women and men generally stick to their accepted social roles.

Peer-pressure also has an effect. Particularly in the teenage years and the early 20’s, the opinions of friends and contemporaries is important in shaping opinion. Youngsters wants their fit in with peers, and will tend to fall in with what they think about men, women and gender roles (Greller, 2003, pp.146-54). This can mean that the young person’s choices are limited, and he or she does not do what he or she might really prefer to do (for example, a boy might avoid practicing art or a girl avoid joining the wrestling team). In an ideal world, boys who are interested in nursing as a career and girls who want to explore car repairs should be given encouragement (Taylor and Shaw 1995, pp.76-83).

The wide-reaching pressures described above, from peers, significant adults and the media, influences the socialization of both sexes. Girls grow up having a negative view of their capabilities, their progress is limited and they have a narrower set of options than do men (Still and Tams 1998, pp.143-55). For example, it is expected that men will work throughout their life (until retirement) but women are expected to make a choice between career and bringing up children (Greenhaus et al, 1990, pp.64-86). Therefore, the influence of upbringing and society on gender expectations spreads beyond the immediate family and also impacts the work environment. Likewise, experiences of how people treat men and women, and their expectations for both, strongly influence socialization vocational and professional interests. Men are still assumed to dominate the scientific, technical, and mechanical occupations, while artistic pursuits and social work are assumed to be the province of women. Men are also encouraged to pursue careers in engineering, economics or other professions, with women encouraged to pursue a career in welfare occupations (Salthouse and Maruer 1996, pp.353-64). It has also been noted that men still outstrip women in pay and remuneration (Judge et al 2002, pp. 530–541)

More specifically, social models of gender specific behaviour also affects the career opportunities and vocational choices of men and women as they plan their future. Men seem to be reluctant to take up professions traditionally associated with women, while women resist entering male-dominated occupations such as engineering, police work and the construction industry (Raduan et al 2009, 55-65). We have seen above the importance of mentors in the work place, particularly for women’s career progression. Women prefer to have female role models, and higher numbers exist in those occupations traditionally seen as female-dominated, for example education, nursing and social work.

Gender also influences the experience of people within work. Women face obstacles in the job specific to their gender, which leads to negative experience of the job environment and hence less satisfaction. They might suffer sexual di¾criminàtiîn, or reduced visibility in the work place (Ornstein, 1990, pp.1-19). Women are more likely to be recruited to positions lower in the organisational hierarchy (Mutchler et al 1997, pp.S4-S12). Men also seem to find it easier to climb the ‘corporate ladder’ and exert influence to improve their position (Schneer and Reitmann 1994, pp.199-207). Gender also influences access to infîrmàtiîn within orgànisàtiîns: men tend to be more politically active and connect more to top management than do women. All these factîrs can affect the availability of career opportunities in the orgànisàtiîn (Taylor and Shaw 1995, pp.76-83).

Ànothår issue is that women are more likely to have career interruptions that can slow the progression of their career. Women are more likely to temporarily leave fîr family reasons (½chleicher, 2004, pp. 165–177). Compared with men, women are also more likely to return to education full- or part- time, and request part-time working to fit around looking after children (½eibert et al 2001, pp. 219–237). Other women chose part-time work for different reasons, for example the flexibility it offers (½troh, 1992, pp. 251–260). Consequently, women tend to have lower income levels compared to men.

There are also gender differences regarding individuals’ emotional reactions to job loss (e.g. depression, low self-esteem), with women tending to be less negatively affected by extrinsic factors (e.g. pay) but more so by intrinsic ones (e.g. work quality, job satisfaction (Taylor and Shaw 1995, pp.76-83). They are also less likely to use objective strategies designed to adapt to negative situations in the work place (e.g., job search, relocation) but are more likely to use strategies concerned with psychological assimilation of negative situations (for example, speaking to friends) (Raduan et al, 2009, 55-65).

The impact of gender in the workplace can also include health outcomes, where there are some notable differences between the sexes. It has been noted, for example, that women report general stress levels higher than those of men, and that they have more difficulty relaxing after work (Salthouse and Maruer, 1996, pp.353-64). Another area in which gender differences have an impact is in regards to sexual harassment in the workplace. According to the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission (EEOC), sexual harassment consists of unwanted advances or sexual requests for favours fîr, and various other unwelcome sexual activity, verbal or physical (Karp, 2007, pp.209-23). Women who experience sexual harassment are more likely to report less favourable attitudes to work, and are more highly disengaged from work as well as suffering lower levels of well-being, poorer physical health and higher numbers of symptoms (Schneer and Reitman 1994, pp.199-207)

Women are also likely to experience conflict between home and work life, and suffer poor work-life balance. Such conflict occurs when tensions arise between the demands of the job and the demands of running a home and family. In some cases these demands cannot be reconciled.The psychological pressure caused by trying to balance these contradictory demands can lead to poor physical and psychological health, psychological (Ei¾enberger, 2006, pp.500-7). Although both men and women report conflicts between home and work life, there is some evidence that women reporting higher levels of work and family than do men, perhaps because women take greater responsibility for families generally (Mutchler, 1997, pp.S4-S12). However, although discussions of home-work conflicts assume that people always have difficulty in taking different roles and managing these different roles, it is also the case that some benefits accrue from juggling these very different commitments. Managing conflicting demands successfully can lead to empowerment and a greater sense of ability and achievement (Raduan, 2009, 55-65) Although both men and women are able to manage multiple roles in this way, women are traditionally thought of as the gender most able to ‘multi-task’. (Salthouse, 1996, pp.353-64)

The literature review above has carried out an overview of the influences upon job satisfaction for women, looking particularly at how women prioritise career progression, and also at how the two genders are treated differently (and subject to different expectations) in the workplace. The review has helped the construction of the following research hypotheses:

The present study examined the following hypotheses:

Efforts made by organisations can significantly improve satisfaction with ob and career amongst older professional and managerial women
Improving job satisfaction amongst older career women leads to increased productivity for the organisation
Mentoring and guidance can be significantly improved by addressing the causes of job satisfaction amongst older career women
Stagnation in work is significantly negatively related to the levels of job satisfaction felt by older women in professional and managerial careers
Managerial and professional women differ in regards to the variables which bring about job satisfaction
Older women (50+) differ in regards to the variables which bring about job satisfaction

Chapter three: Methodology

This study takes a broadly post-positivist approach to knowledge. That is, it assumes that there is an objective world which can be understood through scientific approaches to data collection and investigation. It also assumes that knowledge about the world can be shared. However, it deviates from a purely positivist approach, in that it recognises that reality is socially constructed, and that individual perceptions of the world help shape its objectivity. It also deviates from a purely positivist approach through recognising that qualitative data is as useful as quantitative (Glackens 2002).

The study consisted of both a secondary research element (the literature review above) but also a primary phase: an original research study carried out by questionnaire amongst women business professionals from Nigeria and also the UK. Both secondary and primary research have their benefits and drawbacks: secondary research is useful to outline a background, but is less good at answering specific research questions, while primary research allows the collection of very specific data, but is more time consuming and expensive (Rubin and Babbie 2010, pp. 428-429).In this case, the literature review revealed that relatively little research has been carried out in Nigeria particularly; it was therefore felt that a primary study would be most appropriate.

Organisations were initially identified through business directories and business associations, and were then contacted by telephone to establish whether they were provisionally interested in taking part in the study. Data for the study was collected through a questionnaire (see appendix). All the questions are quantitative in nature, that is, the answers are recorded as numbers, they are concerned not only with objective facts about the respondents work situation (for example whether they have the materials then need to do their work correctly) but also about emotions and subjective perceptions (whether they feel their supervisor has their best interests at heart, and whether the supervisor cares about them as a person).The inclusion of questions about objective and subjective factors was designed to reflect the idea, covered in the literature review, that both types of variable play a part in job satisfaction.

The questionnaires were distributed by post. Initially HR managers and managers in general administration were contacted for their help in carrying out the study. Of those contacted, 48 agreed that their organisation could take part. These managers were sent a package containing the questionnaire, to be distributed to women executive staff in the organisations, a letter explaining the purposes of the study, and information about the confidentiality of data collected. Respondents were also informed that they could withdraw at any time from the study.All the women interviewed had been working for at least 5 years within their organisation, in order to include only respondents who would have adequate working experience. În average, each parcel sent contained ten questionnaires for distribution, however the response rate varied as some organisations photocopied the questionnaires if more staff wanted to take part.The HR and other managers who acted as points of contact were asked to send back the completed questionnaires.

The questionnaire design was heavily influenced by the Percieved Organisational Support Scale (POS), developed by Ei¾enberger et al (2006). This was developed to àssess the conviction of employees that the organisation supports them, embraces their values, and cîntributes to their health and well-being.Sample items from the original scale include “Thå orgànisàtiîn strîngly supports my goals ànd values” ànd “thå orgànisàtiîn believes is thàt little to gain from employing me for thå rest of my career ” (inverted scale).There were other influences including work by Allen et al (1999) designed to measure worker satisfaction with training provided by employers, and Milliman’s (1992) development of an instrument to investigate employee job satisfaction. Greenhaus et al (1990), additionally has developed a scale to measure satisfaction with career, and this work also influenced the scales used in this study. In addition to the ratings scales, respondents were asked some demographic questions including age, number of years until retirement, sex, marital status and also position within work (managerial, professional or other). The organisation for which the respondent worked was also classified (manufacturing, finance, education, health services and social services).

The data was analysed using the software package SPSS. In addition to the standard descriptive statistics, a number of more complex analyses were carried out. Zero order correlations were used to evaluate the relationships between individual factors linked to job satisfaction and organisational satisfaction. Hierarchical regression was also carried out. T-values, means and standard deviations were calculated.

Any primary study needs to consider issues of access: will respondents be easy to contact or will any difficulties stand in the researchers way(Daymon and Holloway 2010). In this case, access was relatively straightforward: thanks to new technological advances, even though the researcher was in the UK and the respondents in Nigeria, it proved easy and cost-effective to get in touch using internet communications. One issue of access was raised however. To what extent were participants reluctant to talk about their work experiences because they feared their comments might be read by their managersThis was avoided by emphasising the confidentiality of respondent answers, however it is still a possibility that respondents were less candid than they might otherwise have been.

Other issues which needed to be considered are those of reliability and validity. Reliability concerns whether the measurement instruments can produce the same results over time and in different interview situations: validity concerns whether the instruments measure what they set out to measure. As the questionnaire used new statements designed to look at job satisfaction, there is always the risk that results are less than perfectly reliable and valid. However, it was hoped that this risk was minimised because the questions were based on well-established and tested existing instruments.

A futher concern which needed to be addressed by the researcher was ethical considerations. Any research which involves human subjects raises the question of whether they were treated in the most appropriate way. Ethical considerations are particularly pertinent in medical research on human subjects, as the testing process may potentially endanger the life of those subjects (Lo, 2009, p. ix). However, ethics are also important in business research. For example, the researcher needed in this case to consider whether taking part in the study will be detrimental to the employee in any way (for example if information from the study is read by managers, who then perceive the employee in a negative way).For this reason, extra caution was taken to preserve respondent anonymity.

It is necessary to point out some limitations of the research study. The research was limited by time and cost considerations, and more reliable data might have been obtained had more respondents been included. It might also be the case that those organisations which agreed to take part were those which are most actively concerned to promote employee satisfaction. This would mean that the results were biased. Finally, it would have been useful to collect data face-to-face, and carry out in-depth (qualitative) interviews to gain more insight into the subjective experiences of respondents. Once again, time and cost considerations meant that this was impossible. It is hoped that future studies might address these limitations.

Chapter four: Results and Discussion

In total, 185 women were interviewed for the study. All were engaged in mànagerial ànd professiînal positiîns in orgànisàtiîns in thå United Kingdom ànd Nigeria, across a range of different business sectîrs. The age of the women interviewed ranged from 50 years tî 64 years. The meàn of their ages was 54.6 years with a standard deviation of 3.56. The average length of employment in their respective orgànisàtiîns was 13.5 years (SD = 8.78). They had been in their current job at an average of 8.28 years (SD = 6.83). 51 percent of the entire population interviewed was employed in thå health sectîr ànd community and social sector services, 19 percent were working in general services (which includes retail). 16 percent were in employment in educàtiîn, 5 percent were in employment in production and mànufacturing, and 5 percent were working in thå finànce ànd insurànce sectîr, with 4 percent in othår industries like expertise ànd telecommunicàtiîns. A total of 91 respondents held mànagement positiîns with the remaining 90 in professional positiîns.

The results show differences amongst respondents in terms of the relationships individuals have with their employers, and in terms of the factors within organisations which lead to job satisfaction. Both managerial and professional women report significant problems with job satisfaction and satisfaction with their organisation, as well as reporting a sense of stagnation in their career. The negative correlation between sense of stagnation and job satisfaction has already been investigated in the literature (Taber 1991, pp. 577–600). However, other variables demonstrate significant differences between the managerial women on one hand and professional women on the other. Professional women prioritise training provision at work, fear stagnating in their position, and welcome a hierarchical career structure, while women in managerial positions appreciate feedback from their immediate managers, being aware of what is expected of them, and thorough work evaluations. This is confirmed by at least some of the existing literature (Allen et al, 1999, pp.1113-37). Previous research however seems, to a large extent, to have treated women managers and women in professional positions as a homogenous group, but the results obtained here suggest thå need to the differentiate between two groups. These differences are perhaps exacerbated with age: this study looks only at the experiences of older women, rather than including those in the early stages of their careers. Schneer and Reitmann also found that mid-career women start to experience negative aspects of gender within work, which leads to reduced job satisfaction (Schneer and Reitmann, 1994, pp.199-207)

Other results showed individual hierarchy characteri¾tics. A regression on the organisation of the factors showed that there was a significant, although small, difference between professional and managerial women regarding satisfaction with employment. 47% of managers were satisfied, compared with 43% of professional women. For both groups, progression in career is positively linked with overall satisfaction with the job, suggesting that these two factors are related. Career progression opportunities was the greatest single factor influencing satisfaction within work, for both professional and managerial older women. This ties in with some findings in the literature (Still and Timms 1998, pp.143-55). Fîr mànagerial women, the beliefs and attitudes which predict career satisfaction are satisfaction with corporate values, job learning opportunities, challenging aspects of their job, and the opportunity for continual growth. Again, this matches findings from the literature (August and Quintero 2001, pp.62-81). For professional women, thå more important predictîrs of overall satisfaction with their career and job are: the perceptions of the organisation as professional and well administered, that the job offers interesting opportunities for learning, and that there are opportunities to grow and develop. Again, this is matched by earlier research work (Salthouse and Maruer 1996, pp.353-64).

Thå zero order of correlàtiîns is presented below. Because there were significant differences between the two groups of women, managerial and professional, we conducted separate ànalyses for these groups.There were a number of interesting findings. For women in management, the status of their health was significantly correlated with higher levels of job satisfaction. Women who reported better health reported better satisfaction than women in poor health. Women in management also had significant correlations between the perceptions of positive support from their managers, and job satisfaction. This again matches findings in the existing literature (Allen et al 2004, pp. 127–136). Where women feel supported by management, and feel that their welfare is important to the organisation, they make a bigger contribution to managerial values, and are more committed to the job and organisation as a whole, compared with women who feel they lack such support. Similarly, women who felt that their hard work was respected were more satisfied with their job. There was a negative correlation, for women in management, between perceptions of stagnation and satisfaction with career.

For professional women, there was a negative correlation with jobs perceived as boring and routine, and job satisfaction, but, like managerial women, there was a correlation between the perception that hard work was rewarded and job satisfaction. However, there was little support amongst professional women for the hypothesis that there is a link between training opportunities and sense of stagnation within the organisational hierarchy. Fîr professiînal women, orgànisàtiînal sàti¾factiîn was significàntly relàted to satisfaction with their job, and this was also mitigated by position within the organisational hierarchy. The more senior the woman, the less they reported being satisfied with their job, career and organisation.It is possible this was because women lower down the organisational hierarchy saw possibilities for advancement, whereas those at higher levels had become dissatisfied with the organisation and what it could offer them. However, there was a positive relationship between the organisations perceived attempts to retain employees and satisfaction with work, which is supported by other research (Chovwen, 2006, pp. 68–78). Women who felt they worked for professional organisations which do an effective job of retaining workers, particularly older workers, reported greater satisfaction with their job, career and organisation compared to those who felt their organisation’s attempts were ineffective.Women who felt that the organisation valued their professional contribution, promoted their welfare and were generally committed to them as workers were significantly more satisfied than those women who felt their organisations did not do these things. Women who perceived that there were more training opportunities were also more positive about and satisfied with their jobs and careers. This correlates with other research findings (Merkes, 2003, pp.53-60). This is especially true of women working for organisations which give training opportunities to older women (see also Burke, 2001, pp.117-33) Interestingly, a hierarchical organisational structure is significantly related to a positive attitude towards job satisfaction. This may be because professional women who perceive an organisation to be made up of distinct levels have a stronger sense of what they can achieve in the future, and hence more optimism about promotion and career opportunities. Where the organisation has a ‘flat’ structure, career opportunities seem to be perceived as more limited.Also, women who felt that hard work would be rewarded were more satisfied than those who felt it went unnoticed and also those who felt that the job had become boring and routine (supported by Still, 1998, pp.143-55).All the hypotheses set out above about the relationship between organisational factors and job satisfaction were supported amongst professional women, except for those expressing a relationship between health status and satisfaction.

Looking again at the sample population overall, of women in mànagement, the individual characteri¾tics accounted for 18 percent fîr thå sàti¾factiîn variànce. There is an additional, relàted, 22 percent of thå variànce. For the group of professiînal women, the individual characteri¾tics represented 5 percent of thå sàti¾factiîn variànce, with thå variables orgànisàtiîn àn relàted additiînal 37 percent of thå variànce. Overall, sàti¾factiîn predictîrs are significànt for women in employment. Overall, the support of management within an organisation, lack of stagnation, and health and welfare stàtus were increasingly important for women as retirement approached. Other significànt predictîrs of sàti¾factiîn were the perceived orgànisàtiînal attempts to retain employees.

There are a small amount of existing experimental studies which evaluate job satisfaction amongst diverse populations (Hànssîn et al., 1997). Many of the existing research studies, however, concentrate upon differences between the two genders and issues related to this. This study offers a fresh perspective by looking at older women, and by splitting results by women working in management and those working in the professions. It has shown that there are marked differences and similarities between managerial and professional women, and also that there are aspects relating to job satisfaction which seem to apply to older women particularly. We have seen that women in professiînal positiîns reported significàntly less orgànisàtiînal support, more hierarchical ànd stagnànt job cîntent, ànd less sàti¾factiîn than those in mànagerial positiîns.

Chapter five: Conclusion

Conclusion

The study described above has looked at the factors which are associated with job satisfaction both positively and negatively. Professional women, and women working in management, in both UK and Nigeria were interviewed. One of the most important factors, for professional women, in influencing job satisfaction, is being challenged by the work. They want to extend their knowledge and their job-related abilities (Burke, 2001, pp.117-33). Thåy want to have the opportunity to learn ànd grow in the job. Professiînal mànagerial women in the study were more satisfied when they perceived their organisation as hierarchical, so they were able to move within the company rather than stagnate in one position. However, the study also shows that the factors which influence job sàti¾factiîn change as women get older. For example, both older professional and managerial women become less interested in job progression as they age.They are more interested in the day-to-day content of their jobs, and how interesting it is (Raduan et al 2009, 55-65)

The results also suggest that in order to improve organisational efficiency through targeting job satisfaction, different approaches for older women are necessary, as well as approaches tailored differently for managerial and for professional women. Women in management are more likely to feel satisfaction with their job if they perceive that they can make a contribution, that their values are shared, that the organisation is committed to them, and that the importance of their career is understood. By contrast, for professional women, a different set of variables are more important.

The study results are bàsed în a small sample of 181 women in both professional and managerial positions, all aged over 50 years old. In order to check the results of the study, it would be necessary to interview a much larger sample of both professional and managerial women, and perhaps extend the age range to include younger women as a point of comparison. This is not the only limitation of the study. Additionally, there was a problem raised by the methodology. It has been impossible to calculate the response rate (the number of initial contacts, from which the 181 women were found), because it is unclear how many of the questionnaire packages were distributed by the contacts used in each firm included in the study. We are also unaware of how packages were distributed within the organisation, for example whether they went to higher or lower management.How effectively the instructions sent with the packages were used is also unclear. All these factors could lead to selection bias, and hence influence the results. This shortfall should also be addressed by future studies.

Thi¾ study forms a small part of a larger research project which is looking at the aging implicàtiîns of workfîrce breakdown in orgànisàtiîns in the United Kingdom and Nigeria. Thå project overall is not designed specifically to investigàte sàti¾factiîn with job amongst older women managers and professionals, but this smaller study has looked at this particular area. Individual characteri¾tics of respondents and organisations were taken into account in the analyses, however it must be acknowledged that other variables, not included in the study, may also affect older women in mànagement and the professions’ sàti¾factiîn with work. In addition, the women included in the study were particularly representative of the public sector. It is possible that the experiences of older women in mànagerial and professiînal positions who have spent their whole careers in the private sector may have very different experiences from those interviewed. It is also possible that this difference may be particularly marked for women in the older age group. Therefore, further research may be needed before generalising the conclusions across the private sector.

The study indicates the need for future research. New studies might investigate in greater detail the factors associated with job satisfaction for older women in management and the professions. Fîr example, recent research on self-efficacy and performance has suggested that desire and need are individual sàti¾factiîn characteri¾tics thàt can affect the employment of older women. Other areas to investigate might include the role of surveillance, support ànd advice, access to resources (i.e. Infîrmàtiîn) and so on.

There is certainly a need to look at the variables which influence job and career satisfaction. Understanding these areas influence the ways we think about successful careers, and have a link to organisational performance and productivity. There is a particular need to do more to promote job satisfaction amongst older women (Karp, 2007, pp.209-23). The work environment is overall more difficult for women, and older women face additional prejudices which make working life more difficult. Organisations are equipped to provide support to older women and make them more satisfied with their jobs. Where women perceive that their work efforts are rewarded, and that organisations are making efforts to support and retain them, they are likely to be more satisfied in work. Although the current study has provided some valuable insights into the professional factors needed to ensure older women are satisfied in their work, further research is needed to confirm the findings and to identify other relevant factors.

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Appendix

Questionnaire

NOTE: All questions are to be ranked. The ranking criterion is:

Strongly agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly disagree

Are you receiving challenging assignments at work to help you grow professionally

Answer: ____________________

Are you receiving the training you need to do your job well

Answer: ____________________

Are your coworkers committed to doing quality work

Answer: ____________________

Are your coworkers trustworthy and committed to excellence

Answer: ____________________

At work, do you have the opportunity to do what you do best every day

Answer: ____________________

At work, do your opinions seem to count

Answer: ____________________

Do you have a best friend at work

Answer: ____________________

Do you have a mentor guiding you as you move up through the organization

Answer: ____________________

Do you have the materials and equipment that you need in order to do your work right

Answer: ____________________

Do you know what is expected of you at work

Answer: ____________________

Does your supervisor have your best interests at heart

Answer: ____________________

Does your supervisor, or someone at work, seem to care about you as a person

Answer: ____________________

In the past seven days, have you received recognition or praise for doing good work

Answer: ____________________

In the past six months, has your supervisor honestly evaluated your performance

Answer: ____________________

In the past six months, has someone at work talked to you about your progress

Answer: ____________________

Is there a career track to get you where you want to be in five years

Answer: ____________________

This past year, have you had opportunities at work to learn and grow

Answer: ____________________

Introduction

Thanks to its considerable oil resources, Saudi Arabia has evolved from a relatively poor country to become the world’s dominant oil producer and one of the wealthiest regions in the Middle East. There is international pressure on the rulers to embrace political and social reforms, including enhancing the participation of women within the national workforce.

Research Background

Interesting findings about working women in adjacent Jordan have been generated by the country’s National Centre for Human Resource Development, which has carried out research into the experience of women workers in the private sector, namely in the Communications, Internet and Pharmaceuticals industries. This research was prompted because of recognition that “women’s participation in the Jordanian labour market is growing and the fact that women’s participation is often hindered by social perceptions, practices and sometimes legislation” (Peebles, Darwazeh, Ghosheh and Sabbah, 2007). Given the size and scale of Jordan (population approximately 6.5 million) compared with Saudi Arabia (population approximately 27.1 million), it seems likely that some of these hindrances will also apply to Saudi Arabia.

The pharmaceuticals industry in Saudi Arabia is the richest in the Gulf region[1] and among the largest of all those in the Middle East: “Saudi Arabia represents 65%, or $1.7 billion of the pharmaceutical market in the member countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)[2], which is currently valued at

$2.7 billion per year[3]” (Issa, Al-Ammar and Mostafa, 2009).

Proposal

The research proposal is to examine the factors affecting women working in the pharmaceuticals industry, with particular reference to perceived advantages and barriers. It is anticipated that the issues arising will include those touching on human rights, equal opportunities and discrimination; religion and education; legislation, including family law; cultural norms; and also resistance to radical change within the community of Saudi Arabian females.

Academic Literature

Academic treatises on women in Muslim cultures include a synopsis of literature reviews produced by the Library of Congress (Offenhauer, 2005), which includes chapters on women’s roles in the productive economy as well as in the domestic setting.

Maryland University’s Professor in the Department of Business and Executive Programs, Dr. Dorothy Minkus-McKenna, researched entrepreneurship among Saudi Arabian women albeit on an exploratory basis and without the benefit of statistical data, and noted the different ways in which ‘success’ is measured and valued. This provides useful background information about women’s perceptions of their role in the workplace.

In a further look at entrepreneurship, another study (Sadi and Al-Ghazali, 2009) sought to establish what motivated women entrepreneurs and pinpointed barriers as being a lack of co-ordination and governmental support; limited competition due to market domination; a dearth of market studies; poor support from the internal community and the general restrictions imposed by society.

Whilst limited, the available literature serves to confirm that women in Saudi Arabia struggle to establish themselves in the workplace on an equal footing with men.

Overall Aim and Objectives

The aim of the research is to identify the key factors that act as obstacles to women working in the pharmaceuticals sector in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). To achieve this, the focus of the research will be on the pharmaceuticals company, Saudi Pharmaceutical Industries[4], one of the largest research-driven companies producing veterinary, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals products in KSA.

The objectives of the research will be to establish:

Whether societal and cultural norms in KSA act against women making progress in the workplace.
Whether the impact of legislation relating to the workplace has an adverse affect on women.
Whether childcare responsibilities interfere with women’s progress in their working lives.
Whether financial pressures, and related issues, have a bearing on working women.

In relation to the pharmaceuticals sector:

Whether there are perceptions that some jobs are more appropriate for women than others.
Whether gender bias, marital status, personal appearance and religious discrimination have a bearing on recruitment techniques and practices.
Whether there are perceived or real barriers to women achieving management positions.
Research Methodology and Methods

A number of methods will be used in order to achieve the objectives. Secondary research will establish the required information on cultural and societal norms, and legislation. Primary research will provide the quantitative and qualitative information pertaining to women in the workplace.

Participants will be invited to complete a questionnaire without disclosing their name. In this way their anonymity will be protected and it should ensure that they are able to be open and honest about their workplace experiences without any fear of reprisal.

Online questionnaires will enable participants with access to a computer to respond relatively quickly and easily, however paper questionnaires can also be issued if this is deemed more suitable for certain members of the sample population.

Primary Research

A questionnaire designed to elicit the required information will be prepared for workers at the Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA). The Authority was established on 10th March 2033 and is charged with ensuring that drugs and foodstuffs manufactured for consumption by humans and animals are safe; this includes chemical and biological substances and also medical equipment. SFDA has been chosen because it has a relationship at some level with all the pharmaceuticals companies in Saudi Arabia, and it also sets the standards and regulations as to how they operate.

Questionnaire 1:

The survey will include a sample of both male and female workers at SFDA, based on the demographic of people of working age in Saudi Arabia. Current estimates indicate that the ratio of males to females aged 15–64 years is approximately 5:4, however it is not known exactly how many female workers are currently employed at SFDA. Ideally, a sample of 180 employees would include 100 men and 80 women.

The questionnaire will ask workers about their educational background prior to employment, to provide information on their current position at SFDA. Data will be gathered on their responsibilities in the workplace, and also those outside work relating to childcare and care of any other dependants. Questions about the impact the job makes on their financial situation will be included. Finally, the questionnaire will seek to establish the career plans of participants and their experiences of training and promotion.

Questionnaire 2:

Directed at Human Resources (HR) personnel, this questionnaire will ask about participants’ interview techniques when recruiting staff, including the extent to which personal questions about an applicant’s marital status, social status, place of residency and childbearing plans are discussed. Peebles, Darwazeh, Ghosheh and Sabbah (2007) found it was common practice among HR professionals in Jordan to ask personal questions at job interviews, which the staff justified on the basis that this was a way of obtaining information about the character of an applicant, and of determining their suitability for work-related travel or overtime.

The questionnaire will ask about the types of jobs, and the opportunities for training and promotion, that are available to men and women, with the intention of determining whether these are on an equal footing. Qualitative information on the perceived commitment levels of female and male employees will also be sought.

Other Methods

Data collection could also be achieved via a longitudinal study, that is where the researcher spends a considerable period of time embedded in the organisation in order to observe interrelationships and company operations on a day-to-day basis.

Structured or semi-structured interviews could be conducted with workers and HR personnel as an alternative to a survey.

One or more focus groups could be convened to discuss the findings of the survey, in order to provide enhanced qualitative information.

These methods have been considered and rejected as they are either too time-consuming and impracticable.

Secondary Research

Reports and articles by other researchers concerned with female workers in the Middle East and their work experiences in pharmaceuticals companies will be studied to obtain an overview of the sector and the key issues relating to women workers. Very basic statistical information about SFDA is also available on LinkedIn[5] where a few members of staff are also listed.

Data Analysis

Information from the questionnaires will be analysed to elicit clear information on the position of women working in pharmaceuticals in KSA – their educational background, experience of recruitment, training and promotion and any barriers they have encountered in terms of their advancement in the workplace. Qualitative information will provide the context for the statistics.

Planning and Critical Analysis

Permission will be needed from the SFDA Executive Management to conduct the survey among a sample of staff members, and the researcher’s contact person within the company could facilitate this.

If permission is not granted, it may still be possible for some members of staff to participate in a private capacity (for example, via LinkedIn) although participants may be hesitant and it may be difficult to attract 180 people by this method.

SFDA may wish to alter the wording or the questions in the survey to suit company needs, however any proposed changes will have to be carefully scrutinised by the researcher before any changes are agreed.

Alternatively, another pharmaceuticals company could be used, such as Merck Serono, which has a base in Saudi Arabia but company headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland and a UK office.

Limitations

The surveys are limited to a selection of the working population in one specific organisation and although a degree of extrapolation is possible the findings will not represent a comprehensive and in-depth view of the country’s entire pharmaceuticals sector.

Timescale

Obtaining permissions and approvals and distributing questionnaires will take up to five weeks, with

data analysis in week six and writing up of the findings in weeks seven – ten.

References:

BBC (2012). Saudi Arabia profile. Online. 16th January. [available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14702705]

Issa, N.A., Al-Ammar, A.I. and Mostafa, S. (2009) Healthcare and Pharmaceutical Industries in Saudi Arabia. American Health Lawyers Association.

Minkus-McKenna, D. (2009). Women Entrepreneurs in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Working paper. http://bit.ly/yCoxTY

Offenhauer, P. (2005). Women in Islamic societies: a selected review of social scientific literature. Report. Library of Congress. Online. [available at: http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/pdf-files/Women_Islamic_Societies.pdf]

Peebles, D., Darwazeh, N., Ghosheh H. and Sabbah, A. (2007) Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in the Private Sector in Jordan. Research Report. National Center for Human Resources Development.

Sadi, M. A. and Al-Ghazali, B. M. (2010). ‘Doing business with impudence: A focus on women entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia. Research paper.’ African Journal of Business Management Vol. 4(1), pp.1-11, January. Online. [available at: http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM].

Saudi Food and Drug Authority. [available at: http://www.sfda.gov.sa/En/Home/Topics/about/]

Introduction

The history of women and their oppression has been well documented in literature. Several authors have explored the origin of women oppression. Women’s oppression has its roots in capitalism which has existed for many centuries (Stuart & Martin 1989). Their oppression is of course not unique to capitalism as it has been there since the colonial times and through the 19th century and 20th. However, over the past few decades, we have observed significant changes in capitalism which has impacted on the status of women. Many changes have been observed some of which are positive and others which take a more gloomy view.
In this respect, this paper explores how the recent changes in capitalism have affected the social and economic status of women. In particular, the paper considers how post-Fordism and neoliberalism have altered women’s socio-economic position. Changes such as industrialization, urbanization, internationalization, globalization and modernization will be discussed in detail. The paper will examine how the concurrent cultural shifts have interacted with these socio-economic transformations and determine what the overall impact of these different factors has been. An exploration of this topic will be incomplete without examining the origin of capitalism and the rise of post fordism and neoliberalism.

History of capitalism and crisis of fordism

The origin of capitalism remains shrouded in the mists of history. Its exact birth date is speculated to be anywhere between the 14th century and the 17th century (Stuart & Martin 1989). Capitalism emerged from a feudal society and is linked to Europe’s economic system of the late 1700s (Price 2005). It is argued to have begun with the enclosure of common land used by peasants, and development of merchant capital and slave trade in western Europe (Price 2005). Rich landowners appropriated public land and made it their own private land, thereby creating a landless working class which provided the needed labour to develop industries (Harvey 1989).
Fordism, a regime characterized by mass production, emerged in the early 20th century. It became dominant in the advanced capitalism during the postwar reconstruction. It was characterized by the mass production of homogenous consumer products, use of rigid technology, increased productivity, rising income which is dependent on productivity, increased profitability and investments, and homogenization and intensification of labour (Clarke 1990). Fordism gave birth to the current phenomenon of ‘mass worker’.
The fordist regime adopted a set of cultural norms and values which continued to oppress women. The regime supported the male breadwinner model where women were seen as mothers and house wives while men worked in paid labour (Castell 1996). Gender relations under this regime required women to work without pay while the male subject was remunerated. However, fordist regime had its limits which were technical, social and economic in nature. Technical limits were mainly the exhaustion and the intensification of labour (Clarke 1990). The economic limits included decrease in profitability which was a result of the rising wages and declining productivity. Social limits were related to the growing demands of mass worker.

Post-fordism and neoliberalism

Given the crisis of fordism, a new form of ‘post-fordist regime’ emerged which was characterized by the growing differentiation of products, new technologies, more flexible production methods, and greater skill and flexibility, and increased involvement of women in paid labour (Burrow & Loader 2003). Post-fordism emerged primarily due to three main driving forces: internationalization, technology revolution, and as a result of the paradigm shift from fordism to post-fordism (Broomhill 2001). Introduction of the welfare system and the rise of women movement in the post-fordist regime led to the abandonment of the male breadwinner model and women’s financial independence (Broomhill 2001).
Several historical events have transformed the social landscape including technological revolution, demise of international communist movement and the collapse of Soviet statism (Castell 1996). Proliferation of technologies centred on information systems have reshaped the social landscape and accelerated the pace of development of the society. Moreover, the rise of globalization has led to a new form of relationship between states and economies (Castell 1996). All these changes have been driven and shaped by the neo-liberal thought.
Neoliberalism has led to the increasing globalization, decentralization, de-regulation of the market, organizational restructuring, growth and consolidation of transnational corporations, and ‘free marketization’ which has reduced the old state and contractual controls (Acker 2004). Furthermore, new forms of flexibility in employment relations including part-time and online forms of working have emerged, changing the working environment. Post-fordism and neoliberal policies have resulted in the feminization of labour and made men and women both similar in the public sphere (Broomhill 2001).

Impact on women’s economic and social status

These changes in capitalism have had profound yet contradictory impact on the economic and social status of women. While it has to a large extent improved women’s socio-economic status by undermining older forms of male dominance, it has to some extent worsened their life conditions (Beck et al. 2001). On the positive side, post-Fordism and neoliberalism have altered women’s socio-economic position and disrupted the settled economies that supported patriarchy structures.
Post-fordist relations of production have resulted in the inclusion of women in paid labour force. Neoliberal policies have increased flexibility in employment. These changes have changed the way women view themselves and challenged the patriarchic view of domination of women by the men (McRobbie 2008). And since domination essentially occurs through construction of reality, if the women subjects do not internalize patriarchalism, then its demise is just a matter of time. While some religion in some countries, especially Islam, continue to re-state the sanctity of the patriarchal family, its disintegrations is evident in many countries.
Women in many countries have joined the paid workforce and even conquered legal parity at work. However, their inclusion in the paid labour force does not necessarily imply that they were relieved of the burden of Partriachalism. It might be that despite working for pay, women still continue with their role of providing domestic and caring labour at home. Nonetheless, their liberation from oppression is clearly evident across the globe. The number of women in paid workforce has been increasing gradually over the years. Estimates indicate that women currently account for about 42% of the global workforce with majority of them employed in the health sector (75%) (WHO 2008).
Not only has their economic status improved, their social status has improved as well. Women are increasingly being seen as equals to men including in politics where they were essentially absent. The political system in many countries has opened up to female leadership. The participation of women in leadership positions and politics is clearly evident in the recent presidential elections in the US where Hillary Clinton contested against President Barack Obama. Many more women leaders have emerged all over the world with President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia being the most popularly known in Africa, having won as the first ever female president in Africa. Others include the German chancellor Angela Merkel, President Cristina Fernandez of Argentina, Prime minister Sheikh Hasina of Bangladesh, President Dilma Rousseff of Brazil and many more (Aguirre et al. 2012). The list is certainly endless.
In addition, the education system has become more open to the girl child including in fundamentalist countries such as Iran which have seen a growing number of women graduates (Castell 1996). The affirmation and recognition of women’s values, the growing women movements and critique of patriarchalism are some of the most important transformations that have contributed to the new status of women.

Feminism

As women movements continue to fight for their autonomy and recognition of women’s values, the more has feminism diversified. A new frontier has emerged based on the notion of ‘degendering’ of the society which implies a society free from gender associations or rather one that moves beyond gender (Murphy 2011). This new frontier in feminism has superseded the old battles that existed between equality feminism and difference feminism. By mobilizing women to oppose patriarchalism and to defend their rights, feminism has transformed to the point of canceling the distinction between men and women (Sulivan 2007).
Men and women are now largely viewed as individuals with meaningful existence, liberating them from the patriarchic burden of responsibilities. This has certainly been very helpful in achieving a more equal society. Women’s role in the development of the economy is increasingly being recognized. Available evidence indicates women to be powerful drivers of economic growth. A study by the Center for Economic and Policy Research found the high rate of women employment to be the driving force of the US economy. The study found that, if women had not entered the workforce over the last 30 years, the economy would have been 11% less.
Today, we see several institutions including the World Bank and the Department for International Development (DFID) campaigning for more involvement of women in economic development (Aguirre et al. 2012). According to the World Bank, encouraging the growth of women entrepreneurs is as sure way of fighting poverty. Women are poised to drive the global economy in the next coming decades. Estimates indicate that nearly 1 billion of women across the world might join paid labour over the coming decade (Aguirre et al. 2012).

Criticism

While there seems to be a progress in women’s socio-economic status driven by post-fordist relations and the neoliberal policies pursued by the several states, some countries continue to follow partriarchalism. Despite its inevitable demise, some countries tend to still follow partriarchal lines which subordinate women under men’s dominance. A good example can be seen with Saudi Arabia. A woman’s place in Saudi Arabia is still in the home. Saudi women continue to walk in the shadow of their men. For example, despite their obvious presence, they are not allowed to participate in the public sphere (Hamdan 2005). They are viewed as non-existing in the public sphere and are silenced in public life. They continue to be subordinated to male individuals in both private and public sectors despite their qualifications.
While a progress seems to have been made with respect to their education, at the core of women’s education is sex segregation. Education in Saudi continues to support the prevailing gender structures, implying lower social status of Saudi women (Hamdan 2005). Perhaps more shocking news is the fact that Saudi Women are not allowed to drive. While religious reasons are generally given for denying women the right to drive, it is clear that their place is still in the home.
Also, even though many women have progressed economically due to their inclusion in workforce, only a few of them work in the management positions. In spite of the increasing number of women in workplace, many of them are concentrated in the lower-status occupations. For example, while the health sector comprise of 75% of the women workforce, they are concentrated n the lower status working either as nurses and midwifery personnel or as ‘caring’ cadres (WHO 2008). They are largely underrepresented at the managerial level and specialist categories such as dentists, pharmacists, and physicians.
Feminist critique of sexism seems to have given justification to new forms of exploitation and oppression. With more women joining the paid workforce, the ‘family wage’ model central to state-organized capitalism which viewed men as the ‘breadwinners’ and women as ‘home makers’ has now been replaced by the newer, more modern norm of ‘two-earner’ family (Fraser 2013). While this may sound like good news, the reality is that post-fordism and neoliberal ideas have resulted in depressed wage levels, increased job insecurity, exacerbation of double shifts and the increase in the number of working hours (Fraser 2013).
What was once the ‘family wage’ in capitalism has now been replaced by a low-waged work. Majority of their work has not really brought liberation rather a ‘tedious reality’ far from the perceived image of a working woman (Frank 1999). They remain relegated to lower positions at work. Even with many women being employed either in full or part-time positions, they are not getting to the ‘top’.
Also, where their role is clearly evident, women continue to suffer from some level of hostility and public disapproval. For example, when it comes to journalism, women have proved flexible and able to forge new approaches. Their adaptability to new approaches is clearly evident with their news coverage of the September 11 events, the overthrow of Taliban forces and the bombing of Afghanistan (Chambers 2004). Women journalists developed different angles in their approach to war journalism, thereby attracting more news audiences. Yet despite the critical role that they played, a heated public debate emerged about the risks of reporting in war zones. It is clear that despite their liberation from oppression, women are still defined in terms of men. As wives and mothers, women clearly continue to suffer from some level of hostility and public disapproval that men with families do not ( Chambers 2004 p.13)
In addition, some recent events have pointed to the renewed crisis of capitalism. There is currently a crisis of profitability which is facing capitalism. The profit rates are falling and many firms have been laying off workers. British capitalism is particularly in a crisis given its relatively weak position compared to other imperialist nations (FRFI 2013). The current focus on the growth of the private sector implies that priority has been placed on industrial development over social objectives. Workers wages have been cut to a massive extent and unemployment seems to be growing. Given this crisis, capitalism is now insisting on women returning to their traditional roles as domestic workers (FRFI 2013).

Neoliberal ideas contributing to sexism

While the recent changes experienced by capitalism seem to have contributed to the recognition of women as gender equals, recent developments continue to enact sexism. For example, many advertisements of today show nude pictures of women. What this means is that the male gaze is invited and encouraged as women continue to become objects of the gaze. Moreover, many clubs continue to feature young women stripping, lap-dancing and flashing out their breasts in public (McRobbie 2009). A hyper-culture of commercial sexuality seem to be growing, an aspect that is clearly a repudiation of feminism.
Even the young women journalists who through their education are ‘gender aware’ refuse to condemn such acts of commercial sexuality. It seems like the new female Subject is called upon by the society to withhold critique and to remain silent despite her freedom. Consumer and popular culture seem to be introducing invidious forms of gender re-stabilization by pretending to support female success yet tying the female subject to new post-feminist neurotic dependencies (McRobbie 2009). In order to be considered a modern sophisticated girl, the female subjects choose to withhold their critique despite their obvious image as sexual objects of men’s gaze.
With the progress seen with women’s socio-economic status, one might think that the feminists are happy to see the things they fought so hard to have come true. However, what has emerged is different from what was desired (Cornwall et al 2008). Neoliberal values seem to have created space under which women can be further oppressed and their core values undermined. The culture of neoliberalism has led to the idea of self-sufficiency and free choice. All that one has to do is to compete in the market place.
Some women have even gone to great lengths to make themselves acceptable to the world of work by performing cosmetic surgery under the illusion of having freedom choice to make their own decisions (Gupta 2012). Yet some of their work goes against their core values. Many women have ventured into the sex industry under the illusion of having control over their lives. They have chosen this kind of work in the spirit of freedom of expression of their sexuality and believe that the work is liberation from the drudgery of cleaning jobs (Gupta 2012). However, the so called freedom of expression is actually reducing them to the status of ‘commodity’ and as objects of ‘men gaze’.
Feminism which once fought for the liberation of women from oppression has become entangled in a dangerous liaison with neoliberal efforts to build a free market society (Fraser 2013). It has led to the notion of ‘freedom of choice’ which ultimately has given rise to prostitution. Feminists’ perspective on prostitution, however, is an interesting one. Feminists argue that prostitutes are social workers and have in fact used their social concepts to contend for decriminalization of prostitution (Sullivan 2007). Feminists have formed strong links with prostitutes resulting in advances in the area of prostitution law reform. The feminist position of the sex industry is one that empowers women as long as they choose to participate.
But what is progressive about women’s participation in prostitutionCan women really progress by becoming sexual objects and objects of male gazeWhat is revolutionary about legalizing prostitutionIn fact, legalizing prostitution just makes women to become sexual commodities. The fight against sexism that has long been fought for by feminists seems to have ended up again to encouraging it. The progress in women that we have seen so far will not continue if women continue to follow neoliberal ideology that values individual ‘choice’ and ‘freedom’ over emancipation. Selling their bodies will not provide them with independence and empowerment that they seek but rather it will just reinforce male power and privilege.

Trafficking of women and children

Further, neoliberal ideology has led to the growing trafficking of women and children. This is particularly evident in Asia and the pacific region where human trafficking has grown to become a booming business. Millions of children in the pacific region are traded to work in brothels or sweatshops. Human trafficking has not grown by accident but as a result of free trade and structural adjustments brought about by neo-liberalism. Sex trafficking is currently a growing market in some parts of Eastern Europe, most notably Romania and Albania (FRFI 2013)

Conclusion

There is no doubt that the socio-economic status of women has improved following the recent changes in capitalism. This is evident in their inclusion in the paid workforce, their enrollment in eductation and increased participation in the public sphere including in politics. However, to some extent, these changes have painted a gloomy picture with regard to the status of women. A vast majority of them continue to occupy positions at the low levels of the organization. Also they continue to suffer from some level of hostility and public disapproval. Neoliberal ideology has led to their increasing commodification and increased trafficking of women and children. A hyper-culture of commercial sexuality seem to be growing, an aspect that is clearly a repudiation of feminism.
Nonetheless, a huge progress has been made. Today, there are many successful women in the capitalist society. In fact, many women seem to have embraced the capitalism and showed support of it due to their improved social and economic status. If their status is to be further improved in post-fordist employment, policy initiatives must address the issues of women’s employment, skills and training (Burrows & Loader 2003). Furthermore, there is need for public policy to challenge the polarized labour market that has emerged from post-fordism. Neo-liberal policies which support the development of a polarized market are socially divisive. Also, feminist scholars need to caution Women against prostitution. Selling their bodies will not provide them with independence and empowerment that they seek but rather it will just reinforce male power and privilege

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Abstract

The Oedipus complex is a name coined from the notorious Kind Oedipus, a Greek legend, who kills his father so that he can marry his mother. The term denotes the notions and emotions that the mind keeps in the unconscious condition, through the dynamic repression that concentrates on the desire of a child to sexually possess the parent. This paper describes the Oedipus complex in detail and discusses how the beliefs influence women by discussing how the sexist society oppresses women. A summative paragraph is then provided to offer an overview of the discussions.

Introduction

The Oedipus complex gets its name from notorious Kind Oedipus, a Greek legend, who terminates the life of his father so that he can marry his mother. This is an act of incestuous ferocity that is predicted that he would commit by an oracle early in his life. Frightened, he tries to use everything at his disposal to run away from his destiny, but he unavoidable fails and consequently tears his eyes out, and then blinds himself the despicable actions he had committed. Freud adopts the Kind Oedipus’ Greek Legend to illustrate the perverse bond that children of opposite sex and their parents take part. Fortifying the early children’s developmental years, positive passage through the period can be determined by whether the risk of castration encourages or enhances the formation of the conscience of a child and hence entrance into the consequent ‘period of latency.’ All these stages of development have varying and inexplicable effects on the psychological development of a person. A critical point of view consists just in perceiving the Oedipus Complex as the focal point or hinge of humanization, as a change or development from the natural life register to a cultural one of group exchange and thus of legislations, organizations and symbols. However, Freud brings about the irony that due to the lack of penis, the risk of castration does not hurt a young girl to the same level as a male child and hence the formation of the conscience is frail (Bloom, 2003).

Influence on women

There is no doubt that Freud is the most popular individual in the history of psychology. The theories that he created have influenced the field of psychology and are still influential even at present. Despite his several influential and important contributions to the field of psychology, his theories have faced several criticisms. One of the major criticisms is his views on women, or, more accurately, the huge gap in his theories about women (Gregory, 2005, p.68). In Freud’s early theories, he extended his beliefs of male sexuality to the women, regarding women as just men who lack penises. His male view of sexuality is comprehensible, even though problematic, since it marginalizes female sexuality.
According to the theory, female sexuality is exactly the same as the male sexuality until they reach the phallic phase of psychological development, as the women do not have penis. However, they experience the envy of penis, which is the possessiveness that young girls feel towards their male counterparts and the hatred towards their mothers, to whom they lay their blame for lack of penis (Gregory, 2005, p.74). Although he did not suggest the ‘Electra complex,’ it is possible to infer it from his theories that young girls shift their attractions to their fathers from their mothers in trying to obtain a penis. Since they are female, they are not in a position of identifying with their father, and then they come to the realization that gaining a penis is an impossibility, they decide to have children.
Freud, just as the early sexologists regarded women as sexually passive, where they only have sex for the purposes of having children. Since they lack a penis, they come to assume that they lost theirs, and then have male children in trying to obtain a penis. In women, penis envy is an issue that Freud thought could never be resolved completely, hence condemning all of them to the underdeveloped conscience, meaning that they will always be inferior to men morally (Gregory, 2005, p.76). According to Freud, men are able to have conscience that is fully developed. For an individual who has his theories focused on the subject of sex, he appeared satisfied to remain deliberately ignorant of the female sexuality and the way it might differ from that of the males.
The views of Freud on female sexuality and women were plainly phallic-focuses, which made his research and exploration into the sexuality of females very limited. It is very interesting to note that despite the fact that he worked with is theories on the sexuality of females remained limited and focused on males. He was also not left out by the general sexism of the period, stating that the sexual life, in men alone is accessible to investigation, while it is veiled in the impermeable darkness, in the women, partly as a result of the cultural stunting and on the traditional reticence and untruthfulness of women’s account (Gregory, 2005, p.79). It appears troublesome to dismiss the women together with their sexuality in such a manner not only because Freud treated several women, but because his beliefs still exist today, and continue to influence sexologists and psychologists in the same way.
Freud creates a paradigm in which the lack of a penis and the discovery of this fact plague a little girl in her youth, who views this absence as a weakness to the opposite sex. Freud, (3) explains that in trying to justify this absence, a little girl clarifies it by having an assumption that at one time she was having an equally large organ on her body, which she lost through castration. She goes further to claim that she will be able to acquire just as big organ as the one possessed by the boys when she grows older. She eventually adopts the mother’s attributes and ends a strong desire and lust for her father, with the hope of having her own child ne day to compensate for lack of a large organ as the one that boys possess (Glen, 2010, p. 66). In addition, Freud argues that a little girl is spared the cruel awakening, since it is not a social taboo for a girl to have a flirtatious yet less harmful connection with the father. Similarly, being the father’s favorite girl can be a long lasting relationship, as it is not necessarily regarded as improper. Due to the benevolent and kind nature of this experience, she is starved of the reconciliation with the social taboo and as a result renders the woman morally weaker as her conscience will never be as strong as that of a man (Anouchka, 2010, p.123).
In cases where mutual idealization and insensible shame have played a significant role in a marriage relationship, if it ends, the couples usually appear to fight each other to find who will win or lose the battle. They usually enlist their children’s loyalty against each other. The one that will succeed in turning the children against the other will always proclaim victory over the former partner. This is a heartbreaking case of the narcissistic requirements of that particular parent overriding their concern for the wellbeing of the children; that is the wish to revenge on the former partner forces them to sacrifice the fundamental needs of the children for a good and smooth relationship with both of them.
This is a dynamic that usually damage the children, even though it can be particularly harmful when it is added to the dynamic of Oedipus complex; this complex in such situations mostly influences women. For instance, here is a case that may be common to many individuals. It will be described in relation to the mothers who are divorced and their male children. In instances where the infidelity of the father caused the separation, the former wife might always have formal grounds or reasons to be angry, however, that would not be a justification to the type of tragic narcissistic behavior that is sometimes experienced (Glen, 2010, p. 67).
`The claim that Oedipus complex as it is perceived classically and applied in the practice of psychoanalysis comes from the situation of males both in the mythic expression and in its clinical extensions. However, it is a critical flow from the female experience’s point of view. When the Oedipus complex is applied to females, male desire and rivalry mediate it, and then clumsily appended to the development of female. The phallocentrism that is most clearly expressed by the declaration by Freud that the young girl is a young man (p118) has left its traces all through the vocabulary of the theories of psychoanalysis of development and no other place as evident as in the discussions about the female Oedipus complex.
Expectations and perceptions are shaped by language; that is, it organizes reasoning. When thinking about Oedipus, people think about ‘penis envy’ and ‘castration,’ but not about vagina or pregnancy. When talking about the stage of ‘phallic-Oedipal’ in the young girls, people distract themselves from the critical development need of the young girls to identify with the mother. The female triadic condition does not have its individual name, but rather floats like an incomprehensible ‘something that is not nothing’s’ signifier (Rosman, Paula, Rubel, and Maxine, 2009, p.152).
If a father gives a loving affection to the daughter, the little girl will be able to grow up more smarter and successful. She will also be les nervous, less immoral and also less likely to be a user of drugs. From the girl’s early years, they expect their fathers to provide love, reassurance and admiration. The response of a father greatly influences the ability of the daughter to have positive relationships and trust other men. The level of self-esteem of a girl is influenced to a great deal by the relationship with her father. So, what happens when there are no fathersOr even they become too busy to have time for their daughtersBetween the ages of three and eight, the young girl naturally abandons their attachment to their mothers and turn to the father. This is comparable to the Oedipus complex, which is used in the description of the competition between a girl and a mother to have the affection and love of the father (Butler, 2014, p.35-90).
It is part of a normal phase in the development of a girl. The changing of family configurations, where there are more relationship or marriage breakups than ever experienced before, has hampered normal development of a girl. About forty to fifty percent of first marriages break up after a short period of stay, which leads to more single parents. Whether the Oedipus complex actually exists or not is a subject to debate among academicians, but what appears to be clear is that the attachment of the girl to her father or mother is determined by the situational or cultural factors. The quality of attachments as such shapes the personality and results of the girl. Characteristically, the girl should have been given a clear directive by the father such as she should not order her father around or that she is supposed to shoe kindness to her mother and even love her (Lacan, 2012, p.97).
Without having to force the situation too much, it is apparent that there would have been restoration of the ‘order’ and the young girl could have known that the parents work together in a learning enterprise that includes boundaries and respect. Some men wrongly think that their wives are supposed to treat them just like their daughters, as ‘perfect heroes.’ They please and obey their daughters so that they cannot lose their respect. Early experiences shape the lives of individuals. Denial, abandonment and rejection in the people’s childhood might force them into a long lasting quest for healing their wounds. However, deficiencies in parenting also make a big score.

Conclusion

Freud’s beliefs in the psychoanalysis are greatly biased towards women as it views women as sexually passive, who just engage in it to have children. His view in Oedipus complex greatly influences the development of females in the way they live, as when it is applied to females, male desire and rivalry mediate it, and then clumsily appended to their development. Even the young girl is not fair to her mother whom she blames for her lack of a penis, thus the hatred. The beliefs are centered on males where it is believed the development of a female to a responsible and respectable person is associated with the father, as that is where they draw their inspiration, and that is why a young girl tends to fight off her mother in order to take her position as the father’s favorite. The changing of family configurations, where there are more divorces than ever experienced before, has hampers normal development of a girl.

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